Tiger Mom Essay

In reading â€Å"Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mom† by Amy Chua, I was surprised how Chua shared in detail about her life journey as a parent and raising two children. This is a book about Amy Chua’s experiences in raising her two daughters, Sophia and Luisa (Lulu), in what she believes is the â€Å"Chinese mother† style of parenting. She is quick to point out in the first chapter, entitled â€Å"The Chinese Mother,† that she uses the term â€Å"loosely† as it would be ridiculous to try to assume that every mother from China is a like a tiger mom.Just as â€Å"Western parents† would not be an appropriate label to place on every parent from Western countries. In this same chapter she references a study where â€Å"50 Western American mothers and 48 Chinese immigrant mothers† were polled on the role of parents in children’s academic success; with â€Å"70% of Western mothers believed ‘stressing academic success is not good for t he children’ or ‘parents need to foster the idea that learning is fun’† versus nearly â€Å"0% of the Chinese mothers felt the same way.† Although she states there are several studies that support this theory, I would not put too much credence in this particular study since the pool is too small and there are a lot of â€Å"Western American mothers† with different style of parenting. A â€Å"Western American mother† can be from as far west as Hawaii or from as northeast as Maine; then there is everyone in between.She also gives us a list of what a Chinese mother’s belief system entails: â€Å"schoolwork always comes first; an A-minus is a bad grade; your children must be two years ahead of their classmates in math; you must never compliment your children in public; if your child ever disagrees with a teacher or coach, you must always take the side of the teacher or coach; (6) the only activities your children should be permitted to do are those in which they can eventually medal; and that medal must be gold. † This list seems a little extreme to me, but I guess it just depends on what you are brought up to believe is the norm.When you do not know anything different, this is normal, expected and accepted. As I began to read the book, I quickly realized Amy Chua is very pro â€Å"Chinese† parenting style. In chapter four, â€Å"The Chuas,† she described how her and her sisters were to speak only in Chinese in the home; â€Å"drilled math and piano everyday;† and they were not allowed to attend sleepovers at friends’ homes. Yet, she also tells of the time when she forged her father signature in order to apply to a school in the East Coast after her father had already said she was going to attend the University of California at Berkeley, where he was a professor.Here I saw a bit of a rebellion, which she will come to see later in the book with her daughter Lulu. Throughout the book, I saw many examples of how Chua compared â€Å"Chinese† parenting to â€Å"Western† parenting. This is especially true in chapter 10, â€Å"Teeth Marks and Bubbles. † She tells the story of how she had called her eldest daughter, Sophia, garbage for something Chua believed to be â€Å"extremely disrespectful†, although she never mentioned the offense. She says her father had called her the same thing when she was disrespectful to her mother. However, according to her, it did not damage her self-esteem.However, when she retold this story at friend’s dinner party, she was immediately looked upon with disdain and felt shunned by those around her. She goes on stating the three big differences between the mindsets of Chinese and Western parents. First, Western parents worry about a child’s self-esteem and are more concerned with the child’s psyche, whereas Chinese parents don’t. Chinese parents â€Å"assume strength, not fra gility, and as a result they behave very differently. † Second, Chinese parents feel their children should be indebted to them for the sacrifices the parents made on their children’s behalf.Therefore, they â€Å"must spend their lives repaying their parents by obeying them and making them proud. † Most Western parents do not feel the need to apply that same pressure on their children. Third, Chua claims Chinese parents believe they know what is best for their children and feel entitled to supersede all of their children’s choices and/or decisions. In this particular instance, I believe a most parents, not only Chinese parents, believe they know what is best for their children. Chinese parents take it a step further and do not allow choices for their children, whereas Western parents do allow their child to have choices.Although Chua argues in favor of the Chinese parenting style, she is merely stating the differences between the two approaches and the one she prefers. She lets us into her world and walks us through her trials and tribulations with the â€Å"Chinese mother† approach she elected to follow. Where this style of parenting had worked with her and her sisters and to some extent her eldest daughter, Sophia, however Lulu was not so accepting. Near the end of the book, specifically in Chapter 31 â€Å"Red Square,† everything comes to a boil as she has, yet, another fight with Lulu at the GUM cafe.After the fight, Chua runs away into the Red Square to be with her thoughts, then has an epiphany and realizes that Lulu was rebelling against her and her â€Å"Chinese mother† style of parenting. When she returns to the cafe, she informs Lulu that she had won and she would be allowed to make her own choices and quit the violin. Do I favor this type of parenting? The style of parenting Chua describes in her memoir is that of an authoritarian parenting style, which â€Å"emphasizes high standards and a tendency to control kids through shaming, the withdrawal of love, or punishments† (http://www.parentingscience. com/chinese-parenting. html).This style I do not agree with. In fact, according to Dr. Gwen Dewar, â€Å"authoritarian parenting is linked with lower levels of self-control, more emotional problems, and lower academic performance. † Dr. Dewar is more in favor of an authoritative parenting that involves the same emphasizes of high standards, but also involves â€Å"parental warmth and a commitment to reason with children† (http://www. parentingscience. com/chinese-parenting. html).There is nothing wrong with wanting the best for your children, wanting them to succeed and instilling a hard-work ethic and providing guidance, however it should not be at the expense of the child’s psychological well being. Even though it looks like Chua’s daughter, Sophia, had benefited from this style of parenting, they may just begin to realize they could have possibly achieved the same results without the extreme harassment. Only time will tell if Chua’s daughters will end up resenting her as her father ended up resenting and detaching himself from his family after disagreeing with his authoritarian mother.Especially Lulu, who was the most difficult one. As stated in the beginning, this is a book on how a â€Å"Chinese mother† style of parenting was used by Amy Chua and the results she had with this style. Although, I may not agree with all of the aspects of this style, it does have its pros; such as wanting your child to the best that they can be and its cons; such as the belittling of a child can never be good. This was never intended to be a â€Å"How to Guide† to parent your children, as Chua stated in an interview after the book was released (http://abcnews. go.com/US/tiger-mother-amy-chua-death-threats-parenting-essay/story? id=12628830).Chua has received a lot criticism from many people, but I agree with her, this is n ot a guide to parent a child. The reason being is that each child is unique in its own way. What may be a good approach for one, it not necessarily good for another. As she acknowledged in her book, â€Å"When Chinese parenting succeeds, there’s nothing like it. But it doesn’t always succeed. † However, at the end of the day you make the decision you feel is right for you and your family and adjust, as needed, as you go along.

Helen Dunmore tells the story of the Siege of Leningrad by showing the trials and tribulations of one family Essay

I think that Helen Dunmore has been successful in the telling the story through the Levin family. She clearly depicts the trials and tribulations, yet Dunmore could’ve done justice by letting the audience know more about the major events of the progress of the Siege. The Germans surround the city cutting off the food supply and escape routes. Over six thousand people were killed in Leningrad during the winter, mainly from starvation. Throughout the novel, Anna and her family have been very well off. They all live together in safety, none of them are in prison or forced to be in the world war and have the skills needed for survival. We are told that they had an apartment which was very large and â€Å"desired by many† and that people would kill to live in such a large place. They own a burzhuika, have wood and food and are have money and their possessions. Anna, the central character of the novel is a believable mixture of vulnerability and strength already having a very busy lifestyle. Dunmore portrays Anna’s selfless maternal qualities towards Kolya and her father. We learn that instead of chasing her ambitions of art in college that she feels responsibility towards her 5 year old brother, her job at the nursery and other commitments which show that she is very hard working. She sustains her family financially and physically. Due to food shortages, Anna returns to the Dacha, to collect food for the future. This shows that she is realistic about the tough future. When Anna is at the dacha, she manages to cull out a good quantity of potatoes and put them into her bag. We can tell from her behaviour that she is a hard working character. On her way back from the dacha, Anna is stopped and questioned by the militia. She bribes the militia-man by offering him some of her potatoes and onions. Also Anna goes out daily during the Siege to provide for the family. She spends hours, weak from hunger, queuing for bread, negotiating with store owners and digging out scraps of wood to light a fire to make sure her family don’t freeze to death which is very common on the streets of Leningrad. She also has to fight for what she has and be resilient and not trust anyone. When she refuses to lend her chisel to a woman, she is nearly attacked as they falsely accuse Anna of stealing their wood. On her way back she is questioned lies about what is in her bag, this puts her at the mercy of the robber as he is well fed and Anna dares not to try and attack him. He takes the wood from her knowing that it is precious. She wildly chases any rumours of any sausage deliveries and travels far and wide to provide food for the family. We learn of all the people who wait in these queues, their morale, health and their desperation. Anna goes to the black market to try and buy a burzhuika to keep everybody warm. We learn of how everyone is feeling the cold and are suffering from chest infections and pneumonia. Also how everyone is starting to lose energy and stay indoors to conserve heat as each day you get colder and hungrier. Mikhail, Anna’s father tries to help out and volunteers to fight in the People’s Volunteers. Through his character we meet the old lady on the farm who is not able to move and be evacuated like her family and has only the animals and farm jobs to keep her busy. We see how the siege has destroyed her and she is just waiting for the Germans to take over. Also, after Mikhail gets injured, we see Andrei with him and taking him to the hospital as well as the other wounded volunteers in the truck and some who die on the journey. Mikhail is a testament to the way Stalinism was crushing people. He is unable to accept the changing times, the rejection of what were in his eyes, good stories. He is under the iron fist of the Soviet state and is breaking down. After he returns from the hospital he has changed so much physically and mentally that even his own children couldn’t even recognise him. He has been affected greatly by the horrors of the war he has fought in and by Vera’s death. Even though there are certain characters such as Andrei and Marina who are not actualAndrei is a very patriotic Siberian and is a very committed doctor who is scarred from the experiences at the Luga Line. He seems generous and kind-hearted towards his patients feels he is unequipped to help some of them on the front line. He is a doctor who works with method and will only speak about things which he has personally experienced. Andrei and Anna are drawn together through their similar experiences. Both have been on the Luga Line and have shared similar traumas of seeing death. Both on their return are slightly scarred by this and it has changed their characters slightly. Andrei is able to comfort Anna as he is more used to seeing death as he is a doctor urging her to not â€Å"think about it.† They therefore share a unique understanding of each other. They are also brought together by their physical/sexual desire. He informs the family of the current situation at the hospital, that the numbers of casualties are rising and more and more are dying each day. The Germans bombed the warehouses which contained a lot of the food which the Leningraders needed for the winter. Food became scarce and by comparing a â€Å"bag of flour† to â€Å"days of life† shows how the extent to which the family have bare the pain of â€Å"shelling and bombing† The value of food has gone so high, people wish each other good luck as food has become so scarce people will do anything for it. Kolya is Anna’s 5 year old baby brother. She takes care of him as she is much older and as it is her responsibility to look after him after her mother’s death. Kolya is very lazy and stubborn which irritates Anna, â€Å"She had made him lazy† The cause of his laziness is that Anna will do it all for him. He is so caught up in his own games; he has no interest in helping Anna such as the time when she was showing him how to plant crops and has a very short attention span. He is a representation of the life of a child in a war situation. He is innocent in the fact that he doesn’t know the consequences of war as he plays with his toy soldiers. Anna feels responsible to what happens to him during the siege, he becomes skinny, he is constantly cold and hungry, has no energy and lacks motivation and enthusiasm to do anything anymore. He is quite a dependant and selfish character. He relies on everything from Anna and forces her to buy the burzhuika and for him to get extra bread from everyone else’s ration. When Marina asks to live permanently with the family at the start of the siege, Anna inwardly rejects another demand on her as she does not want another person to look after and also the fact that she hardly likes Marina. This shows how she in a sense is a bit like her mother due to her conscious hatred to Marina. Marina brings food and money which is very useful in the siege and uses Anna’s need to befriend the family and get close to her. She looks after Kolya and Mikhail while Anna is out getting food for the family. We learn of her love towards Mikhail, motivating him to get up and walk around and by staying with him just after he has died. Also she shows her love to Kolya by helping make the fort and keeping him busy by playing with him. She helped Anna in preparing the food and making decisions. She too has been affected by starvation, we are told that her ring can no longer fit her, that her fingers are so thin and bony. She gives the family some hope and motivation. Also the deaths of the two lovers, Mikhail and Marina once again show the story of the Siege through the family. We see their suffering, to provide for their family and we see that for some close family members of the citizens that death gave way to victory. This shows the losses that all had to face, losing loved ones and not being able to bury them as the ground is too hard and no one has the energy to do so. Overall, I believe that showing the trials and tribulations of Anna and her family have given us a good idea of how the siege was affecting the citizens and that Dunmore has been successful. We see through all the characters the hardships faced, whether it was the young children or the old women and that the Siege affected all and that wealth did not matter. The novel ends on an optimistic note, with the remaining members of the family walking outside in the summer’s which shows new life and some hope.

A Look At The Dualism Concept Between The Body And Soul As Depicted In Meditations On First Philosophy By Rene Descartes

A Look At The Dualism Concept Between The Body And Soul As Depicted In Meditations On First Philosophy By Rene Descartes Body and Soul Rene Descartes presents in his Meditations on First Philosophy the idea of dualism, the belief that the body and the soul exist separately from each other. Physical human bodies are composed of cells, tissue, blood, organs, skin, a brain and the like. From the brain, humans have thought. The mental capacity to think is what creates human personality and allows humans to reason and form ideas. The question of whether or not the body and soul are separated or not is a vital philosophical question, especially to Descartes as he grapples with meditation and the feeling that nothing is real or certain. This leads him to question his own existence and who he is. In this paper, I will argue against Descartes’s belief on dualism as the body requires the soul to live. The soul and body are tied together in order to grant humans the ability to exist, create goals to chase after and grow as individuals. The main argument is that the body and soul are individual forms. Descartes presents three main premises. The first premise of this argument begins with Descartes stating â€Å"if I convinced myself of something then I certainly existed†¦I am, I exist† (Descartes 110). This pertains to the soul and that if a human is capable of thought, they exist. Even if a person is unsure of their actual existence, it does not matter as long as they themselves believe they are alive and existing. This leads into the second premise where it is discussed whether humans are being deceived by God over their existence. Descartes argues that if even if God, or some creator, is deceiving us, if we think we exist we do. However, if God is the perfect creator of the universe it would makes sense that He gave his creation souls and a sound existence. The third premise describes the body and soul separately, showing how the two are different. Descartes labels the body as simply being our physical self, that has hands, feet and a solid figure. He writes how the soul has features like sense perception and the ability to fabricate thoughts. The body and soul are presented as being unique from each other, thus the concept of dualism is confirmed. These premises come together to shape the conclusion that confirm duality and that the body and soul are apart from one another. I agree with Descartes’s first premise on the grounds that if we think we exist, we do. It is impossible to definitively find out if everything is a faà §ade or if humans truly do exist in a real universe. But due to the fact that humans are alive and can think, it is presumed that humans do exist, at least to a certain extent. I also agree with his third premise on the body and soul being different. The soul is not something that is visible but rather an abstract concept used to describe what governs the body and allows humans to speak, think and act. However, I do not agree with his overall notion of duality. Descartes presents his argument without sufficient evidence but rather relies on his own opinion. Typically, a body without a soul cannot be called an existing being. The body might be alive but with no soul there is no person, no identity or personality. Similarly, without a physical body the soul cannot exist. If there is no body there is no person to speak of. Upon birth and death, the body and soul arrive and leave together, leading to the conclusion that they are linked together and rejecting dualism.

Dissertation topic in Science Education, PhD Research Paper

Dissertation topic in Science Education, PhD - Research Paper Example Beneze et al identify that â€Å"for most students, school science is like being chained inside Platos cave, only able to experience or interpret the world of science from flickering shadowy images† (2003, p. 285). In a study of 3 years of large scale analysis of the teaching of science, they concluded that children do not get so familiar with the use of abstract ideas and they do better with practice. In an old journal that examined the evolution of the teaching of science in elementary schools, it was apparent that the original approach of teaching science in the 1800s was to get children to perceive nature â€Å"from the childs standpoint† (Curtis, 1950). However, further investigations indicated that as times evolved and institutions of higher learning got structured and teaching methods were institutionalized, middle schools were required to prepare their pupils for advanced courses in science (Curtis, 1950). Thus, although practical studies and practical teaching is important and vital, there is the need for the teaching methods to be relevant to higher education and the real world. The teacher will have to draw a balance between three main things in the teaching of science: Internships for teachers are normally conducted in an academic or school-setting. There is limited exposure to the industry and other institutions of higher learning (Minuskin, 2009). There is an inherent challenge in the funding of these internships. Hence, if it is going to be upgraded to a system that will involve institutions of higher learning, the industry and the development of practical ideas, there will be more cost constraints. This can be reasonably spread through the use of online methods and other developed systems that can be conveniently replicated (Nadarajan, 2011). Also, partnerships between the community and institutions can help to share the costs (Hogue, 2012). The aim of the

Compare and contrast Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Compare and contrast - Essay Example Also, along with the teacher, a school counselor should help a child who is struggling with learning or using appropriate behavior. The role of the principal is to ensure that the discipline plan is being used appropriately school wide. Q2. Identify and discuss the three organizing principles about the learner. There are three principles about the learner. The first principle is that the learner should always be treated with respect. The teacher should treat the learner with respect, the other learners should treat each other with respect and the learner should respect himself. The second is that every learner has a great capacity to learn. Although all students start at a different level, they all have a great capacity to learn and grow from the level where they started. Effort will need to be made by the learner and the teacher to help the learner grow. The last principle states that the learner's behavior or performance always has a purpose. The purpose will vary with different le arners in different circumstances. Most misbehavior happens with one of these 4 purposes: seeking attention, seeking power, seeking revenge or lack of self confidence. An example of a student misbehaving who is seeking attention would be a student who calls out at inappropriate times during class.

Discuss the details of the Marshall Plan in comparison with the Essay

Discuss the details of the Marshall Plan in comparison with the Morgenthau Plan.ReasonsRepercussionsProfits U.S. get - Essay Example It is worth mentioning that the Morgenthau Plan existed as an underprivileged policy choice. As a result, it forced Germany into a decline and deindustrialization hurting the rest of the world in relation to economics and world security. It may be argued that this was a major factor in initiating the Second World War. On the other hand, the Marshall Plan was noted to create righteous circles of growth resulting to being the most favorable policy that developing nations ought to use (Fulbrook 16). The Morgenthau Plan was not implemented because this plan stressed on reindustrialization. As a result, it depressed carrying capacity in relation to population, forced institutions to failure, and agricultural yields to severely decline. It is worth noting that globalization acts on all emerging nations in the same way the Morgenthau Plan operated on Germany post-World War I. While globalization brought nothing but regression to low-income countries, it conveyed more wealth and prosperity t o high-income states. Thus, instead of a merging of income, there is a rising divergence of nation’s proceeds. This was notably not in line to what the European countries required to save them from the effects of the war. It is worth noting that the war left Europe in dreadful economic shape. ... This resulted to the United States to implement the Marshall Plan to aid in the reduction of the awful aftermath of the war. The U.S., therefore, helped reconstruct the economic well-being and potency of European society. It is worth noting that this was not just a humanitarian aid, but was the finest way to combat communism in Europe. This is because the European nations accepting U.S. aid needed to function as an economic unit. Moreover, a reconstructed Europe would benefit the United States by yet again being able to purchase American factory and farm harvests. More significantly, a frugally strong Europe would halt the spread of communalism (Turner and Henry 209). However, the Soviets rejected Marshall’s request to help grow a plan to rebuild Europe. They (Soviets) said that his plan stood as an arrangement to rule Europe economically. The Eastern European nations that were under Soviets control, therefore, failed to participate. In a meeting that took place in Paris in 19 47, America was disappointed in the direction the plan was taking. This is because 16 Western European nations came with a distinct â€Å"shopping list," list†, other than taking a unified plan for Europe as a whole. Moreover, western Germany that was occupied by Britain, France, and the United States was thought to remain economically unstable hence not eligible to receive much of the Marshall Plan aid. The French assumed this would stop Germany from ever again going to combat. However, Marshall stressed the significance of full German participation. He saw it as essential for the economic recapture of Western Europe. The Marshall Plan was noted to do numerous necessary things. These were providing philanthropic aid for

Management Consulting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Management Consulting - Essay Example Schuyster undermined this when he mistreated his employees. Excessive and uncontrolled personal spending is another cause of failure in Go Global Case. Schuyster used took the company’s money to buy personal property and fund his extravagance. This took the money that would have gone to paying loans and other company expenses including taxes. This was evidence for poor financial management and ineffective accounting (Go Global Case Study, class notes 1). The dysfunction and breakdown of the founders of Go Global would have been avoided by using alternative dispute resolution methods in settling whatever the difference that arose between them. For example, the founders would have opted to invite the intervention of a mediator who would help them to negotiate for an amicable deal. To avoid the lack of respect for customers and employees, there was need for proper communication channels. Customer complaints should have been directed to the customer relations department and not the management. The management, Schuyster in particular, would have esteemed their employees if there were clear policies that protected their rights. Conducting regular auditing would have helped avoid excessive personal spending. The external auditors contracted should be independent in order to conduct objective assessment and give accurate feedback. Separating personal life from business for example through setting definite salaries for everybody including th e top management of the company would have prevented the use of company funds in personal projects (Longenecker, 2012). As Dirk Schuyster’s consultant, I would have advised him to seek anger management therapy. I would have underscored to him the need to spend quality time and resources in such an initiative because it is an element of personal development, which improves leadership. I would have advised Schuyster

Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 5

Report - Essay Example competition but has had to dictate and shape organisations in terms of what consumers wants, how and when they want it and what they are prepared to pay for it (Hagan 1996:1). Kanter (1995:71) on his work of â€Å"Mastering Change† argues that success in the present day business is not for those companies that re-engineer the way they do things, or for those fixing the past. According to Kanter (1995) such an action will not constitute an adequate response. This is so because success is based on an organisation’s ability to create, rather than predict the future by developing those products that will literally transform the way the world thinks and view it self and the needs (Kanter 1995:71). This paper focuses on Tesco and using certain analytical techniques such as the PESTLE framework and Porter’s competitive advantage to diagnose the activities of the company in the phase of the global financial crisis. The last part of the paper uses the cultural and the organisational paradigm to challenge the taken for granted assumption and consequently design a way forward change program for Tesco. Tesco PLC is an international retailer. According to the company web page, the principal activity of the Company is food retailing with over 2,000 stores in the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Turkey, Thailand, South Korea, Taiwan, Malaysia, Japan and China. On September 30, 2005, the Company entered into an agreement to dispose of its operation in Taiwan to Carrefour as part of a transaction to acquire Carrefours businesses in the Czech Republic and Slovakia (Company 2007 Report). The company is in simple insurance, telecoms, personal finance and recycling. The Tesco Plc website states â€Å"shareholders. Today the Group operates in 12 markets outside the UK, in Europe, Asia and North America. Over 160,000 employees work in our international businesses, serving over 28 million customers and generating  £13.8

Pick 5 characteristic or stereotypes about Germans that you hold to be Essay

Pick 5 characteristic or stereotypes about Germans that you hold to be true and admire to what extent are they opposite or comparable to American value - Essay Example They do not like to be interrupted once work has started and able to combine contradictory demands of efficiency and quality (Tomalin 18). Germans are very assertive in the sense they take pride in themselves and also regard themselves highly. They have high self-esteem and can communicate very well because they of their assertiveness. Another German trait is efficiency, sometimes brought to the extremes people often term it as cold efficiency or ruthless efficiency to the point of disregarding other peoples feelings as long as the job gets done. They want nothing to get in their way. Germans are also very rational, using logic and reason to pursue and justify their ends. This trait is often brought to extremes also to the point of becoming almost mechanical and it could be used to justify some wrong ends or objectives through twisted logic. Assertiveness and efficiency are two traits which are comparable to American values. On the other hand, I find orderliness and rationalism to be the exact opposites. Americans are fond of doing things they like such as living in a disorderly dorm room or starting several jobs at once. Americans are not so guilt-ridden with angst like the Germans with

The Philosophy of Freidrich Froebel Essay Example for Free

The Philosophy of Freidrich Froebel Essay Friedrich Froebel was born in 1782 in Oberweissbach, Germany. His mother died when he was 9 months old and his father was away on pastoral duties quite often so he went and lived with his uncle when he was 10 years old. Froebel was not completely interested in school but enjoyed forestry, geometry, and land surveying (Dunn 169). His upbringing and interests, along with his Christian faith strongly influenced his educational philosophy. Friedrich used learner-centered, child-centered, experience-based ideas to develop the worlds first kindergarten, a school for young children (Henson 8). The father of kindergarten was the title usually associated with Froebel and his philosophy. His methods allow children to grow and move on as they conquer new concepts not when educators or administrators decide. Froebels philosophy was influenced by the teaching methods of Pestalozzi (Dunn 169). He agreed with many of Pestalozzis ideas but thought that there was too much focus on memorization and direct instruction. Froebel balanced group activities with individual play, direction from teachers was balanced with periods of freedom, and the studies of nature, mathematics, and art were balanced by exploring (Froebel Web). Through exploration by the child and observation by the teacher education could be distributed as was needed in the best interest of the child. He wanted students to figure things out for themselves through discovery. If a child can discover a concept on their own that child is more likely to grasp and clearly understand that concept because they were the means by which they learned the information. Play was a major aspect of his philosophy because it gave children a chance to externalize their inner nature and a chance to imitate and try out various adult roles. Children had the chance to try on many faces and figures so that they could find out who they were and who they should be. Even today people try to find out who they are because in the essence of each of us we feel that who were are or supposed to be is already in our souls we just have to discover who that is. Through play and role playing children could learn how to solve their own problems. Much of what people learn comes through their experiences, if children are able to practice and experience certain problems they will develop the skills necessary to problem solve. If children could work through these situations there could be a decrease in behavioral problems as children grow because they had the chance to develop their problem solving skills at a young age. According to Froebel, the ultimate purpose of education is the realization of a faithful, pure, inviolate, and hence holy life (Dunn 170). Since Froebels philosophy was based on idealism he believed every person had spiritual worth and dignity. If a person assumes that each individual they encounter has worth and thus should be treated so more people in life would be, simply put, happier. It comes down to respecting each individual for whoever they are. Thus like idealists he believed that children had within him all he was to be at birth. As Dunn states, practice in education should be designed to develop and cultivate individuals toward attainment of their destiny (170). Starting children off in kindergarten gave them a chance to grown and be what they were destined to be, by partaking in play and role playing with plenty of space to develop properly. In todays society there is a lot of talk about finding yourself and taking space to figure out who they are. I think a lot of that is because people never had a chance to do so when they were young. Todays society just speeds through life trying to get one step ahead of the next person and later in life they stop to reexamine who they have become because they didnt take the chance to discover that person when they should have. Froebel stressed the importance of creating a happy, harmonious environment where the child can grow; and where the value of self activity and play are foundation to the development of the whole person (Froebel Web). Teachers should observe students during play so that they know how and what to teach and gear toward each student because you need to cultivate the inner person in each. It isnt all about chaos because there is order and structure in play and free will. Play and freedom are structured through gifts and occupation. The gifts are used to help children understand concepts and the occupations to make products. Froebel was trying to create a school that uses the childs imagination and creativity already in them to foster an education plan that fit their minds and souls. We have been taught in the bible to be like children because they are pure and clean, if more of us became like children then the world would be a better place. The effects this theory has on the classroom can be positive and negative. The idea of a child-centered classroom is a terrific idea but can make the classroom seem very chaotic and haphazard which is difficult for some teachers and parents. With a child-centered classroom the planning a teacher puts into her lessons must be flexible and follow the needs of each individual, which is difficult because each child has different needs so planning could be a lot of different activities and flexibility. This philosophy allows opportunity for all students to completely succeed because it works with the childs strengths and educational pace. A problem with that is that children dont develop at the same rate so children will be going over different material at the same time. By allowing children to work on their own, the behavior they have will improve because they feel that they have more control over their own education and pace. As many positive effects as this free child-centered philosophy has, it also has in negative effects. Students may not reach their potential if they are not challenged by high expectations. There are also fewer concrete assessments to gage child success and failure. The philosophy could be a huge success if employed by a highly committed teacher who is prepared to truly encourage individual growth. The teachers role in the classroom is not just as observer who watches children play and explore independently but to guide the children to make discoveries. Open ended questions are a great way for teachers to foster critical thinking because the teacher does not provide the student with opinions (Froebel Web). Teachers are guiders and helpers for children to explore who and what they are to become. There are a lot of great ideas that have come from this philosophy, one being the introduction of kindergarten into the educational system. Some people today even think that it is too early to start a child in school but when is it really a great time to start? There are more people who are starting to embrace the idea of a child-centered approach because too much of education is focused on what we think children need to learn and not necessarily what they need to learn or are ready to learn. Teachers today need to stop and look at educators and philosophers of the past to recognize simple theories they employed. Todays education has become caught up in speed and necessity to be better than the next guy, we have forgotten to look at the people we are teaching and the fact that some are not ready for what we think they should be. There is a need for adults to get back to a simpler way of life so that we dont forget that children are precious gifts that must be treasured and fostered.

Reflective essay relating to a patient with COPD

Reflective essay relating to a patient with COPD INTRODUCTION: The purpose of this essay is to adopt Rolfe, Freshwater and Jasper (2001) model of reflection in reflecting upon my experience in practice placement while caring for a patient with a long term condition. This model will help to identify the learning needs and how it may be achieved. To maintain confidentiality in this essay with respect to the NMC code of conduct, I will be keeping the patient’s information anonymous, thus will be referred to as Elizabeth. Reflection is an important element of learning (Arbel, 2009). John and Freshwater (2005) defined reflection as assessing previous experience to develop tacit and intuitive knowledge. Rolfe et al (2001) model of reflection propose a framework that uses Borton’s (1970) developmental model. Pryce (2002) explains that, this model is a simplistic cycle that is based upon three sample questions to reflect on a situation: What? So what? Now what? Hence, it is vital that student nurses reflect regularly so as to improve their practice, knowledge, skills and behaviour to care for their patients to the best of their ability. Ultimately, Botten (2012) stresses the importance of reflection for student nurses, as it enriches their clinical learning, enabling them to learn more about themselves and the way they practice. WHAT I met Elizabeth during my previous practice placement at the surgical ward, she is 70 years old and was diagnosed with severe chronic bronchitis approximately 8 years ago. She was admitted to the ward due to acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). According to Kauffman (2014), bronchitis is the Inflammation of the bronchi associated with partial obstruction of the bronchi by secretions or constriction. Chronic bronchitis is also included under the umbrella of COPD (Jindal Vijayan, 2011). In regards to NICE (2010), about 3 million people have COPD in the UK, 900,000 have diagnosed COPD and an estimated 2 million people have COPD which remains undiagnosed. Also, according to department of health (2010) COPD mainly affect people aged over 45 with a history of smoking. SO WHAT Elizabeth stated that she was experiencing progressive dyspnea and increased cough. McCann (2007) stated, with chronic bronchitis, increased accessory use of muscles may be chronic and is preceded by a productive cough, sputum production and shortness of breath. At the time of assessment during admission, Elizabeth reported that she has been unable to care for herself and has difficulty managing her daily activities as she lives alone. Elizabeth’s personal hygiene appeared to have deteriorated and she was only able to speak in short sentences. Elizabeth’s personal hygiene was deteriorating as a result of her inability to self-care. According to Field Smith (2008), hygiene is fundamental for all people. The nurses used Roper et al (2001) and Orem (1991) nursing models in meeting Elizabeth hygiene needs. In addition to Field Smith (2008), it is stated that, this nursing models helps patients to achieve the activities associated with their daily life independently. Following the care plan, the nurse assessed Elizabeth’s hygiene needs, taking into consideration any deficit that may affect her ability to care for herself. The nurse made sure that appropriate personal hygiene care including washing, oral care, hair care, mouth care and nail care was provided and this was discussed with Elizabeth in order to ensure her needs are fully met by protecting her right to privacy and personal choice. DOH (2003), states that personal hygiene is the physical act of cleansing the body to ensure that the skin, hair and nails are maintained in optimum condition. Dingwall (2010) also suggested that assisting patient in meeting their hygiene needs as well as helping them can develop a nurse-patient relationship and allow a skilled practitioner to assess how the patient is improving mentally and physically. Due to the exacerbations, she had problems eating and swallowing, hence, simple routine nutritional screening was performed using a validated nutritional screening tool such as Malnutrition universal screening tool (MUST). According to Rice (2006) nutritional support is a vital part of nursing care because many patients with COPD are malnourished. This nutrition screening was carried out so that changes in her weight can be identified immediately and dietary changes can be started to improve her nutritional status as soon as possible. Specific dietary advice and support as well as general advice for meal planning were reinforced. Nazarko (2002) emphasised that, nutritional status is crucial to patient’s state of health. Referral to dietician and speech and language therapists was made to optimise her nutritional status, and assess and treat her swallowing difficulties. According Evans (2012), swallowing difficulties can make patient’s eating and drinking difficult and c an often result in patients losing weight if no adequate support is given. Hence, Adjustment of food flavour, texture, density and temperature was made to help minimize dysphasia. Any liquid given such as water or ensure was thickened as they are difficult for the tongue to control and can easily splash into the trachea (Weetch, 2001). Due to concerns regarding Elizabeth inability to carry out daily activities safely without risk of falls or accidents, which may result detrimental effect upon her health and quality of life, referral to the following members of multi-disciplinary team was made for further assessment to assist with her daily activities of living that may enable her to continue to live within her home safely. These members of multi-disciplinary team included; social services, physiotherapist, occupational therapist, social workers and age concern. According to Karen Aidin (2011), Dyspnea causes many patients with COPD to withdraw from day-to-day activities and hobbies. Referral to rehabilitation services was considered to improve her breathing, oxygenation and endurance (NICE, 2006). Home care aide services were considered to assist Elizabeth with her activities of daily living care. Rice (2006) suggested, in planning care, it will be crucial to determine what activities of daily living the patient c an perform. NOW WHAT In becoming an efficient nurse, there are some areas of improvement that needs to be considered for future practice such as; understanding more about activities of daily living for COPD patients, having more knowledge on assessment discharge, how they are done, package of care for COPD patients. These learning needs will be achieved through working closely within the multi-disciplinary team. According to Nehring Lashley (2010), working within multi-disciplinary will give the student opportunity to enhance their professional skills and knowledge of patient’s care. Also, reading more about COPD exacerbation will enable the student to recognise a patient having exacerbation if it re-occurs in future practice, knowing how to manage their condition effectively, hence, providing high quality care. CONCLUSION COPD is a debilitating illness which causes patient’s emotional, social, psychological and physical distress due to the impact on daily living. This reflective essay has helped the student acknowledge the importance of reflection within practice as it allows professionals to convey thoughts of how they can improve on their practice to enhance effective delivery of care.

Human Performance Enhancement Technology :: Science Engineering Essays

Human Performance Enhancement Technology One of the funniest things about human nature is that nothing is ever good enough. No matter how good we are at something, there will always be someone in those 6 billion plus who can do it better. My mom told me that when I was a kid playing soccer in the back yard. They don't sound like the words of encouragement you might expect from a nurturing mother to an aspiring child but it was true. No matter how long I practiced, how many goals I scored, games I won, trophies I put on the shelf of my bedroom, there would always be someone, somewhere who could do me one up. When faced with this thought, we have a choice to make. Give up and accept life for what it is, try to enjoy every moment and yield to share the glory with the word, or try harder. Obsess over the prospect of achieving perfection and stop at nothing: all for that that one moment, that one instant when we ARE the best. People are like technology, they may be the newest hottest thing on the market but lined up for years behind them are thousands of advancements and improvements, maybe still in the works, but chomping at the bit to break out on the world and push even farther. So what's the point? What's the moral we are supposed to derive from all this? No moral. No point. Just a thought I think is pertinent to the changing tides out there in the battle we all face to be the best we can be. How far will we take it? What is advancement and what is too much? We live in an interesting time. Information technology is growing rapidly, new products and ideas popping up every day in relation to every field. By the same token biology and chemistry are as strong as they have every been, discoveries in medicine and health care are booming. So what happens when these potent ingredients are thrown together? What happens when we apply IT to biology? Well we already are, we ¡Ã‚ ¦ve been doing it for years. Doctors and Scientists couldn't accomplish anything without their computers. The human Genome project could never have even existed if not for computers and the special software used.

Phoenix Suns :: essays research papers

The History Of The Phoenix Suns   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I chose to write about the Phoenix Suns basketball History mainly because they have gave me, â€Å"the fan† great memories. The Suns introduced me to a whole new world of sports. When I watch their Basketball games it’s probably different from any other fan’s viewpoint. I tend to analyze their games and try to think what their next move is going to be. Other fans just cheer which is alright. Throughout the Phoenix Suns existence, they have had many great years as well as many down years. When I was introduced to the sport of Basketball, the first team I watched was the Chicago Bulls; I was completely intrigued by this sport. Each member of the team on the court always seemed to be giving it their all. It was only for a year that I was a Chicago Bull fan; this was because I had not yet found out that Arizona had, and â€Å"The Team† of course, is the Phoenix Suns. I was quickly converted to a Suns fan (now I now what you’re thinking; you think I’m one of those people who just moves around cheering the team that wins†¦. well I’m not I was just a little kid who just found out that there was a professional basketball team in the state he lived in, and I just started cheering for them.) This team is great they are always playing their hearts out.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Well before the beginning of the 1968 draft two Teams (the expansion teams) Milwaukee and Phoenix got select players from other teams this is known as the Expansion draft. The other teams were basically giving away low quality players . Before the team was even created there was a contest to see what the teams name was going to be. There were names like: The Moon Shooters, The Nitros, The Hoopsters, The Dudes, The Gransuns, Desert Rats, Desert Cats, The Sun Dials, And how about The Phoenix White Wing Doves?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The eventual winner was Selinda King she acquired $1,000 dollars plus season tickets to the suns first inaugural season. In the expansion draft the Suns selected Dick Van Arsdale, which turned out to be a great pick because he ended up averaging 17.6 points a game for Phoenix. Other players selected by Phoenix were: Gail Goodrich, Neil Johnson, David Latin, Stan McKenzie, McCoy McLemore, Dick Snyder, and George Wilson.

John Kenneth Galbraith :: essays research papers

John Kenneth Galbraith The Canadian-born, Berkeley-trained John Kenneth Galbraith has been considered by many as the "Last American Institutionalist". As a result, Galbraith has remained something of a renegade in modern economics - and his work has been nothing if not provocative. In the 1950s, he presented economics with two tracts that needled the mainstream: one developing a theory of price control (which arose out of his wartime experience in the Office of Price Administration) which he argued for as an anti-inflation policy (1952); the second, American Capitalism (1952), which argued that American post-war success arose not out of "getting the prices right" in an orthodox sense, but rather of "getting the prices wrong" and allowing industrial concentration to develop. It is a formula for growth because it enables technical innovation which might otherwise not been done. However, it can only be regarded as successful provided there is a "countervailing power" ag ainst potential abuse in the form of trade unions, supplier and consumer organizations and government regulation. Many have since argued the formula for East Asian success later in the century was based precisely on this combination of oligopolistic power and "countervailing" institutions. It was his smallish 1958 book, The Affluent Society, that earned Galbraith his popular reknown and professional emnity. Although the thesis was not astoundingly new - having long been argued by Veblen, Mitchell and Knight - his attack on the myth of "consumer sovereignty" went against the cornerstone of mainstream economics and, in many ways, the culturally hegemonic "American way of life". His New Industrial State (1967) expanded on Galbraith's theory of the firm, arguing that the orthodox theories of the perfectly competitive firm fell far short in analytical power. Firms, Galbraith claimed, were oligopolistic, autonomous institutions vying for market share (and not profit maximization) which wrested power away from owners (entrepreneurs/shareholders), regulators and consumers via conventional means (e.g. vertical integration, advertising, product differentiation) and unconventional ones (e.g. bureaucratization, capture of political favor), etc. Naturally, these were themes already well-espoused in the old American Institutionalist literature, but in the 1960s, they had been apparently forgotten in economics. The issue of "political capture" by firms was expanded upon in his 1973 Economics and the Public Purpose. But new themes were added - notably, that of public education, the political process and stressing the provision of public goods. Although often not acknowledging it explicitly, many economists have since pursued themes raised by Galbraith.

Describe the characteristics valued

Even today security Is a big Issue to us and still likely to continue this way, but progresses are happening all the time. Employers will assume that you would know about these important areas. But they wont always expect you to know everything, but it is important that you have some knowledge about the main issues. If you are interested in a certain area, you will need to do as much research as you can! Also you will need to develop your skills and knowledge in that certain area. Working procedures It's very good to have some knowledge of typical practices In the IT Industry.This Is cause of the legislation that Is Included In IT at the moment. Things Like data protection and copyright laws are a part of this. Employers have to make sure they are not breaking any laws, this means they will need their employees to always be aware of what they are doing and the responsibilities they have in these areas. Health and safety knowledge Employers will expect you to have some knowledge In th e health and safety area. This Is essential as the employers will expect you to be aware of the risks and the responsibilities you have. For example you might get eye strain from looking at the imputer screen for a long time.How to stop this from happening is to adjust the monitor at eye level and put it somewhere so there is no reflections coming of the monitor. General Skills Interpersonal Skills In your job, it is most likely that you will be communicating and working with other people. So this will mean that you will need to have good communication skills. This is what most employers look for. Both IT professionals and IT users may be limited to their knowledge of technical areas in IT. Numeric Skills What kind of job role you have will depend on the level of numeric skills you need. These days, nearly every Job role requires basic innumeracy skills.You will need to be able to carry out day to day mathematical calculations like working out percentages and basic sums. Other areas of IT like programming will require a higher form of mathematical ability. Creativity The type of job you do will depend on how creative you are. For example the employees that work in web design and desktop publishing will be known to be creative in that area as they can come up with lots of unique Ideas to make the web For example you can Just be creative by coming up with ideas for new products or even improving old products or services.Organization skills It is very helpful if you are an organized person. This is because you will need to be able to do work tasks efficiently. For example the Job that you have been set to do will mean that you need to have the right equipment and information for the Job. This could be going from having something to write with and remembering client's names or businesses that you might have to visit. Also to look professional it's very good to be organized. Most employers don't like it if you come in and say ‘l forgot it' or ‘l left it t home' as its very UN-organized and makes you look unprofessional.Attitudes preferred Determined Your Job can sometimes become very hard and might stress you out a lot but there is always a way to overcome this problem and that is to be determined. A lot of employees who tend to give up easily on work will never impress their employers because it shows them being very UN-professional. But the other employees who have determination to get things done and who want to succeed will look much more professional and will impress their employers. IndependentThe first Job you have in IT probably will be with other people instead of you being by yourself. But this doesn't mean you can't be independent. Your employer will be expected for you to develop your own ability to work by yourself and to use your own initiative than waiting for other people to give you instructions on what to do. Integrity Your employer will want someone who they can trust. So being honest to everyone and not going m aking up things is important. Your employer will also expect you to work as you normally would if not better for when your supervisor isn't there.Also there could be expensive equipment which means you have to make sure you look after it. Leadership Throughout your Job role and the time you have worked in the business, your employer will always look out for any leadership skills you have in you. For example if you have good leadership skills then you can work well with others and help to inspire and encourage them to get on with work and push through it, or even help them! Good leaders are good when it comes down to organizing and planning things and are not afraid to take control of it all.

Validity and Reliability of the Job Content Questionnaire

52 SJWEH Suppl 2008, no 6 Validity and reliability of the job content questionnaire in formal and informal jobs in Brazil by Tania Maria de Araujo, PhD,1 Robert Karasek, PhD 2 de Araujo TM, Karasek R. Validity and reliability of the job content questionnaire in formal and informal jobs in Brazil. SJWEH Suppl. 2008;(6):52–59. Objectives This study evaluated the job content questionnaire (JCQ) in measuring work psychology aspects with respect to formal and informal jobs in Brazilian occupational groups.Methods A cross-sectional study was carried out in a random sample of 1311 ? 15-year-old residents in the urban area of the city of Feira de Santana, Bahia, Brazil. The Portuguese JCQ version included the recommended 49-item of the original version. The JCQ performance evaluation included descriptive analysis, discriminant analysis, internal consistency, and construct validity. Results Averages of the JCQ scales were similar for the formal and informal workers, except for decision authority (formal job: c=31. ; informal jobs: c=34. 5). The averages of the Portuguese JCQ scales did not differ substantially from those obtained in other European, North American, and Japanese studies, albeit they were slightly lower in the Brazilian case. In general, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients revealed performance similar to other large-sample studies, showing acceptable internal consistency. The coefficients were relatively similar for formal and informal jobs. Factor analysis revealed high consistency with the theoretical model.Conclusions This is the first study to evaluate JCQ performance comparing formal and informal jobs in a developing country. The job content questionnaire presented a good global performance, and it did not differ substantially from those observed in other studies. These findings suggest that the job content questionnaire can be used in studies carried out in developing countries and in situations in which informal jobs are common. Key terms de cision latitude; demand–control model; occupational stress; psychological demand; psychological distress. Health Department, State University of Feira de Santana, Bahia, Brazil. 2 Department of Work Environment, University of Massachusetts at Lowell, Lowell, Massachusetts, United States. Reprint requests to: Dr TM de Araujo, KM 03, BR 116 Campus Universitario, Feira de Santana, BA, Brazil, 40110 180. [E-mail: araujo. [email  protected] br ] There is a significant amount of scientific literature on the psychosocial aspects of work in developed countries. However, research addressing the measurement of these aspects in developing countries is recent and scarce.In developing countries, work organization aspects are usually considered to be a less relevant problem than other crucial problems, such as unemployment, accidents, and other occupational hazards that threaten life and put worker’s physical health at risk. Moreover, there is an assumption that instruments used t o measure psychosocial aspects in developed countries are not applicable in developing countries because of different cultural contexts. However, these arguments have been criticized because f, at least, the following three factors: (i) the globalization process—many multinational companies have been operating in developing countries under job standards and technologies that are similar to those used in developed countries (1), (ii) social and economic structural heterogeneity in developing societies—which include, in the same region, areas with a high level of development (industrialized areas) and very poor areas, and (iii) the increasing rates of occupational diseases and disabilities related to work organization conditions shown by some developing countries.These three processes, acting together, reveal that psychosocial aspects at work are a relevant problem in different social and economic contexts. The impacts on mental and physical health are already visible in developing contexts (2, 3), and they indicate the importance of investigating work psychology aspects in both developed and developing countries. Some models have aimed at evaluating psychosocial characteristics at work and their effects on worker health.The demand–control model has worldwide use and is a strong influence on this research field (4, 5). It focuses on two crucial work dimensions, decision latitude and psychological demands. Decision latitude SJWEH Suppl 2008;(6):52–59 SJWEH Suppl 2008, no 6 53 de Araujo & Karasek refers to the ability to make decisions about one’s work and the possibility of being creative and using or developing new skills. It includes two dimensions, skill discretion (opportunity to use skills) and decision authority (opportunity to make decisions).Psychological demand refers to workload, mental requirements, organizational constraints put on the worker, and conflicting demands. The job content questionnaire (JCQ) is a standard ized instrument proposed to measure the dimensions of the demand–control model (6). In the last two decades, the job content questionnaire has been intensively used in developed countries, and its performance has been tested in populations from these countries (7–15). However, performance on the job content questionnaire in developing countries remains a less studied issue.In our literature review we identified only three studies conducted in â€Å"developing† countries to evaluate performance on the job content questionnaire, carried out in Mexico (16), Taiwan (17) and China (18). Specific occupational groups were studied: in Taiwan, workers from four companies, including men and women; in Mexico only women from two maquiladora microelectronic plants; in China, male and female health care workers. In Brazil, the Swedish version of the job content questionnaire (17 questions) was tested in a sample of the technical and administrative staff of a Brazilian univers ity.The global performance of the scales for decision latitude, psychological demand, and social support was good (3). The main objective of this study was to assess the validity and reliability of the job content questionnaire in measuring work psychosocial characteristics for workers in formal and informal jobs in Brazil. Study population and methods Study design A cross-sectional study was carried out in a random sample of workers 15 years or older from the city of Feira de Santana in 2002.It is the second largest city in the State of Bahia, in the northeast region of Brazil, with around half a million inhabitants. Definition of formal and informal jobs In Brazil, the Labor Ministry has adopted an instrument to define formal and informal jobs: the Job Card (â€Å"Carteira de Trabalho†). This card establishes the job contract between employees and employers. It is regulated by national laws and provides all kinds of benefits, including placing the worker in a social securit y system. The job card establishes a formal job for the worker.Informal jobs are not regulated by law; there is no social security system, nor any other kind of social or economic rights. Among different kinds of informal jobs, selling products in the street is the most common type. Another type that has increased, as a result of the unemployment situation, is the family store (stores that are constructed in the living room of a person’s own home). Study population The study areas were selected using random procedures, based on population data from the national census.The sampling procedures were conducted using the following steps: (i) selection of the sectors within each subdistrict, by a random procedure, (ii) random selection of streets within each selected sector, (iii) visitation of all houses on the selected streets, and (iv) interview of all people 15 years or older by well-trained interviewers using standard procedures. The use of a field manual helped to standardize procedures in the interview and avoid biases in the data collection. Up to three visits were made to a person’s residence, in an effort to perform an interview.We visited 1479 residences and interviewed 3190 people. To evaluate JCQ performance, we analyzed information only from people who were working at the time of the interview. Altogether 1311 workers were included in this study. Sixty-six percent of the target population worked in an informal job. The percentage of formal and informal jobs was similar according to gender (49. 1% for the women and 50. 4% for the men). No relevant differences were found across the age groups in the informal jobs.However, in the formal jobs, the proportion of workers increased from the beginning of worklife to the middle of it, but it decreased sharply after 40 years of age (from 46. 7% among the workers 26–34 years of age to 25. 5% among the workers ? 41 years of age). The workers in formal jobs had a higher education than those in informal jobs. Workers at the graduate level were 3. 1 times more likely to be in formal jobs than in informal jobs. Commercial activity (retail sales) employed the highest number of workers (38. 8%), followed by services in general (27. %), private household services (11. 2%), education (6. 9%), manufacturing (6. 6%), transportation (4. 3%), and construction (4. 1%). The composition according to formal and informal jobs showed clear job insecurity in some specific sectors. Among the workers employed in the construction sector, 87. 0% had an informal job; for private household services the proportion was 86. 5%; and it was 70% for commercial activity, 64. 2% for transportation workers, and 62% for the workers in general services. On the other hand, 67. % of the people working in education and 57. 1% of those in manufacturing had formal jobs. 54 SJWEH Suppl 2008, no 6 Job content questionnaire in jobs in Brazil Considering the place where people worked, we observed more variety for i nformal jobs. The highest proportion of informal workers was found for working on the street (23. 6%), followed by company (22. 8%), another person’s home (20. 8%), and in their own house (18. 3%). Among the formal workers, 66. 8% worked in companies (private enterprise), and 21. 9% were employed in public buildings.Portuguese translation process for the job content questionnaire The translation process took into account aspects like conceptual equivalence, item equivalence, semantic equivalence, operational equivalence, measurement equivalence, and functional equivalence (19) . The recommended procedures to build a cross-cultural translation of the job content questionnaire were followed. First, the questionnaire was translated independently into Portuguese by two Brazilian translators. Specific instructions were clarified to guide the translation process.According to these instructions, the emphasis in the translation was given to the meaning of the terms rather than to lit eral translation, reinforcing the item meaning in the Brazilian occupational context. The translation, produced in this first step, was discussed in meetings with the research team and translators until a consensual version was drawn up. This consensual Portuguese version was translated back into English (back translation) by two other translators, who were native English speakers and also fluent in Portuguese. The Portuguese version of the job content questionnaire and the back translation ere sent to the JCQ Center to be evaluated by the Center researchers. After this evaluation, some modifications were suggested for the first translation, and they were promptly accounted for. A pretest was conducted to test the clarity of question formulation, problems found in answering specific questions, and conceptual equivalence between both languages (English and Portuguese). Based on the pretest results, a new version was clarified (including a new back translation). The JCQ Center approve d the final version in December 2001. Scales and subscales of the job content questionnaireThe Portuguese version of the job content questionnaire included the following recommended format (6): 49 questions (scales of decision latitude—skill discretion and decision authority, psychological demand, physical demand, social support—supervisor and coworker support, and job insecurity). In order to build indicators, for each scale of the questionnaire, a sum of the weighted item score was calculated according to the user’s guide of the job content questionnaire (6). Statistical analysis All of the analyses were conducted separately for the formal and informal workers.Mean values and standard deviations were calculated for each scale and subscale. The performance analysis included a discriminant analysis, internal consistency (reliability indicators), and construct validity (factor analysis). Discriminant analysis. This study included workers from different job sector s. Discriminant validity was analyzed by comparing the means of the scales and subscales of the job content questionnaires gathered from workers in each sector. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to compare the observed differences. Internal consistency.Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was calculated to assess the internal consistency or homogeneity of the questions aimed at measuring the same construct. Alpha values above 0. 65 were considered acceptable (12, 14). Construct validity (factor analysis). The analysis was developed in three steps. First, an exploratory analysis using a correlation matrix for all of the variables was computed. In the second step, a principal component method was used to extract the factors (eigenvalues ? 1 criterion). A rotation varimax (orthogonal) was conducted to make the factors more interpretable (20).Factors loading values of >40 were considered indicators of significant factorial contribution (10). Measurement of mental health outco me. To evaluate performance on the job content questionnaire in identifying work conditions involving a risk to mental health, we evaluated the prevalence of psychological distress according to the demand–control model. The self-reporting questionnaire (SRQ-20), a structured instrument designed by the World Health Organization to measure psychological distress in developing countries, was used. The scales for decision latitude and psychological demand were dichotomized.The mean values were used to dichotomize both scales. Based on the combination between the levels of demand and control, four categories were established for the demand–control model. A multiple logistic regression was performed to adjust for potential confounders. Results The means and standard deviations of the scales of the job content questionnaire were similar for the formal and SJWEH Suppl 2008, no 6 55 de Araujo & Karasek informal jobs (table 1). The most important difference was observed for â₠¬Å"decision authority† in that there was a higher mean for informal jobs (34. 6) than for formal jobs (31. 99). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were relatively similar for the formal and informal jobs, even though the coefficients were higher for the formal jobs—the coefficients ranged from 0. 65 to 0. 79. The internal consistency for psychological demand was low for the informal jobs (0. 55). The subscale â€Å"conflicting demands† presented poor consistency with the other subscales; its correlation coefficient was lower than 0. 10. For skill discretion, the internal consistency was also relatively low for informal jobs (0. 6029).The subscale â€Å"variety† showed low consistency with the other subscales, the correlation coefficient with the other items being 0. 19. For the job insecurity scale, the performance was poor for both types of jobs (but better for informal jobs). The analysis of the means of the scales of the job content questionnaire according to sector of activity showed some significant differences. Table 2 shows the subscale means of the questionnaire according to sectors. The mean for skill discretion was lower for private household services (formal jobs: c=29. 18; informal jobs: c=32. 12) than for education (formal jobs: c=35. 3; informal jobs: c=34. 08). Similar differences were observed for decision authority (note the high means for education for both formal and informal jobs). Psychological demand revealed a similar pattern across all of the sectors. The means for physical demand were higher for construction (formal jobs: c=12. 50; informal jobs: c=14. 30) and manufacturing (formal jobs: c=13. 45; informal jobs: c=12. 66) and lower for education (formal jobs: c=11. 84; informal jobs: c=11. 71), as expected. The highest job insecurity means were observed for the construction sector (formal jobs: c=7. 0; informal jobs: c=9. 78). Correlation coefficient by sector No correlation was found between decision l atitude and psychological demand (formal workers: 0. 057; informal workers: 0. 010). This finding supports the hypothesis of relative independence between these two factors, as theoretically postulated. For almost all of the scales of the job content questionnaire, the correlation coefficients showed a similar pattern for the sectors. The pattern was similar by sector with respect to the formal and informal jobs, following the predicted direction, as proposed by Karasek’s demand–control model.Some small differences were observed in the coefficient magnitude, but not in the direction of the coefficients. However, a substantial difference was observed between the two dimensions of decision latitude. In the sectors of education, manufacturing, private household services, construction, and general services, a positive correlation between skill discretion (SD) and decision authority (DA) was observed—as expected. For the sectors of commercial activity and transportat ion, we observed no correlation between skill discretion and decision authority, 0. 068 and 0. 077, respectively.Construct validity The factor analysis loaded eight factors for formal and informal jobs (tables 3 and 4). Similar patterns were observed for both types of jobs. There was high Table 1. Means, standard deviations (SD), and Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients for the scales and subscales of the job content questionnaire according to formal and informal jobs. Scales Range Formal jobs Informal jobs Mean SD a Mean SD a Decision latitude 24–96 64. 76 8. 44 0. 6576 65. 91 7. 84 0. 6211 Skill discretion 12–48 32. 76 4. 25 0. 6500 31. 39 4. 06 0. 6029 Decision authority 12–48 31. 9 6. 20 0. 6869 34. 46 6. 01 0. 7194 Psychological demand 12–48 30. 07 3. 63 0. 6627 29. 89 3. 29 0. 5588 Social support 8–32 23. 07 2. 09 0. 7103 23. 20 2. 01 0. 6588 Coworker support 4–16 11. 75 1. 16 0. 6901 11. 97 1. 25 0. 7009 Supervisory suppor t 4–16 11. 28 1. 47 0. 7900 11. 38 1. 30 0. 6515 Physical demand 5–20 12. 30 2. 14 0. 7584 12. 53 2. 25 0. 7615 Job insecurity a 3–12 5. 25 1. 15 0. 3613 5. 90 1. 83 0. 5540 Age 15–82 33. 93 11. 59 – 34. 94 13. 93 – a Means for job insecurity (4 items): formal jobs: 6. 47 (SD 1. 44); informal jobs: 7. 44 (SD 2. 47). Table 2.Means of the subscales of the job content questionnaire according to sector of activity for the formal and informal jobs. (SD = skill discretion, DA = decision authority, DL = decision latitude, PD = psychological demand, PhyD = physical demand, JI = job insecurity) Sector SD DA DL PD PhyD JI Formal jobs Construction 31. 67 33. 84 65. 71 28. 67 12. 50 7. 00 Manufacturing 33. 09 31. 91 65. 07 31. 45 13. 45 6. 32 Commerce (retail activity) 32. 80 31. 54 64. 28 30. 47 12. 45 6. 23 Transportation 31. 78 29. 68 61. 33 29. 28 12. 74 6. 20 Education 35. 06 35. 33 70. 56 30. 02 11. 4 4. 87 General services 32. 13 32. 44 64. 79 30 . 11 12. 29 5. 44 Private household services 30. 47 29. 18 59. 65 29. 50 12. 13 5. 50 Informal jobs Construction 31. 40 32. 41 63. 95 30. 78 14. 30 9. 78 Manufacturing 33. 10 33. 25 66. 26 31. 03 12. 66 7. 61 Commerce (retail activity) 31. 40 35. 66 67. 13 30. 01 12. 36 7. 00 Transportation 30. 94 36. 25 67. 25 31. 03 13. 35 6. 38 Education 35. 28 34. 08 69. 36 29. 44 11. 71 6. 30 General Services 31. 94 34. 60 66. 64 29. 66 12. 50 7. 07 Private household services 29. 12 32. 12 61. 34 28. 98 12. 07 6. 58 56 SJWEH Suppl 2008, no 6Job content questionnaire in jobs in Brazil consistency with the theoretical model for the scales for supervisory support, coworker support, skill discretion, decision authority, and physical demand. The subscales related to psychological demand loaded on different factors. The subscale â€Å"conflicting demands† did not load on the psychological demand scale, as expected. For both the formal and informal jobs, it loaded on one separate factor (factor 8). For the skill discretion scale, the subscale â€Å"variety† loaded on the factor related to the psychological demand Table 4.Factor (F) analysis using the principal component extraction method and varimax rotation with the informal jobs. Scale Informal job (N=780) F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 Skill discretion Learn new things  ·  ·  · 0. 661  ·  ·  ·  · Repetitive work a  ·  ·  · 0. 480  ·  ·  ·  · Requires creativity  ·  ·  · 0. 587  ·  ·  ·  · High skill level  ·  ·  · 0. 644  ·  ·  ·  · Variety  ·  ·  · b 0. 502 Develop own abilities 0. 724  ·  ·  ·  · Decision authority Allows own decisions  ·  · 0. 809  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Little decision freedom a  ·  · 0. 822  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Opinions influential  ·  · 0. 690  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Psychological demand Work fast  ·  ·  ·  ·  · 0. 430  ·  ·Work hard  ·  ·  ·  ·  · 0. 479  ·  · Excessive work a  ·  ·  ·  ·  · 0. 686  ·  · Insufficient time a  ·  ·  ·  ·  · 0. 599  ·  · Conflicting demands a  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · 0. 774 Social support Supervisor is concerned  ·  ·  ·  · 0. 760  ·  ·  · Supervisor pays attention  ·  ·  ·  · 0. 718  ·  ·  · Helpful supervisor  ·  ·  ·  · 0. 417  ·  ·  · Supervisor good organizer  ·  ·  ·  · 0. 774  ·  ·  · Coworker support Coworkers competent 0. 722  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Coworker interest in me 0. 710  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Friendly coworkers 0. 652  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Coworkers helpful 0. 714  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Physical demand Much physical effort  · 0. 706  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Lift heavy loads  · 0. 59  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Rapid physical activity  · 0. 756  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Awkward body position  · b  ·  ·  ·  · 0. 874  · Awkward arm–head p osition  · b  ·  ·  ·  · 0. 855  · Variance explained (after rotation) (%) 12. 3 10. 3 7. 39 7. 06 6. 17 4. 90 4. 23 3. 89 Total variance explained (%) 56. 3  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · a Item formulated in a negative direction; the score was reversed before the factor analysis. b Item loaded on a different factor. Table 3. Factor (F) analysis using the principal component extraction method and varimax rotation with the formal jobs. Scale Formal job (N=403) F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 Skill discretionLearn new things  ·  · 0. 639  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Repetitive work a  ·  · b –0. 481 Requires creativity  ·  · 0. 687  ·  ·  ·  ·  · High skill level  ·  · 0. 650  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Variety  · 0. 577 b  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Develop own abilities 0. 653  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Decision authority Allows own decisions  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · 0. 780 Little decision freedom a  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · 0. 674 Opinions i nfluential  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · 0. 737 Psychological demand Work fast  · 0. 477  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Work hard  · 0. 687  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Excessive work a  · 0. 614  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Insufficient time a  · 0. 673  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Conflicting demands a  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · 0. 802 Social support Supervisor is concerned 0. 16  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Supervisor pays attention 0. 674  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Helpful supervisor 0. 744  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Supervisor good organizer 0. 717  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Coworker support Coworkers competent  ·  ·  ·  · 0. 432  ·  ·  · Coworker interest in me  ·  ·  ·  · 0. 757  ·  ·  · Friendly coworkers  ·  ·  ·  · 0. 746  ·  ·  · Coworkers helpful  ·  ·  ·  · 0. 730  ·  ·  · Physical demand Much physical effort  ·  ·  · 0. 747  ·  ·  ·  · Lift heavy loads  ·  ·  · 0. 482  ·  ·  ·  · Rapid physical activity  ·  ·  · 0. 837  ·  ·  ·  · Awkward body position  ·  ·  · b  · 0. 891  ·  · Awkward arm–head position  ·  ·  · b  · 0. 881  ·  · Variance explained (after rotation)(%) 8. 43 8. 19 7. 1 7. 79 7. 54 6. 96 6. 37 4. 48 Total variance explained (%) 62. 4  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · a Item formulated in a negative direction; the score was reversed before the factor analysis. b Item loaded on a different factor. SJWEH Suppl 2008, no 6 57 de Araujo & Karasek scale, and it was not related to the scale for skill discretion, as expected. Physical demand loaded on two different factors, revealing two different types of physical workloads, type 1 including â€Å"much physical effort†, â€Å"lift heavy loads†, and â€Å"rapid physical activity† and type 2 including â€Å"awkward body position† and â€Å"awkward arm and head positions†.Capability of the job content questionnaire to identify different work situations as risks to mental health Relevant differences in the prevalence of psychological distress were observed according to the job strain quadrants. The high-strain quadrant had the highest psychological distress prevalence (table 5). Similar results were found for the formal and informal jobs. The low-strain situation had the lowest psychological distress prevalence. A difference was found in the quadrants of diagonal B (passive and active). In formal jobs, the prevalence of psychological distress was higher for the active job quadrant.For the informal jobs, the prevalence of psychological distress was higher in the passive job quadrant (1. 4 higher than in the low-strain situation). Discussion This is the first study to evaluate performance of the job content questionnaire by comparing formal and informal jobs in a developing country. Performance of the questionnaire was tested in a poor region of northeast Brazil, where general living conditions are precarious and the educational level is low; the worker’s qualification levels were, in general, very low. Despite the cultural nd economic differences from developed country contexts, the job content questionnaire has good global performance. Our means and standard deviations were similar to results from the job stress absenteeism and coronary heart disease European cooperative study (the JACE study) (9), including eight samples from five European countries. Some differences occurred as expected, such as higher means for physical demand and job insecurity in our study (formal and informal jobs) and higher decision latitude for the JACE study. It is notable that, for decision authority, the means for the informal jobs and the JACE study were similar.This similarity indicates a significant freedom for the workers to decide how to do their own work in informal jobs but also pointed out that, among these workers, the possibility to make decis ions was not combined with the use or development of skills. For example, in the sectors of commercial activity and transportation, the workers seemed to be free to decide how to do their work, but the same did not apply to the development of new skills and abilities. The means for decision authority were higher than the means for skill discretion in these sectors.Within these sectors, the proportion of people working on the streets was high, a fact that could partially explain this result In general, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients revealed a performance similar to that found with other large-sample studies, conducted in developed countries, even though they were slightly lower in our study. The estimated coefficients indicated acceptable levels of internal consistency for almost all of the scales of the job content questionnaire. The psychological demand scale, with five questions, showed poor internal consistency.The reliability was acceptable for the formal jobs but low for the informal jobs. This finding has been observed also in other studies. For example, in the JACE study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was relatively low for the men (Netherlands 0. 57, Canada–Quebec 0. 59, Japan 0. 61) and for the women (Netherlands 0. 51 and US–QES 0. 62). These results revealed a general imprecision of the job content questionnaire in measuring psychological demand. Karasek et al (9) have argued that different meanings of psychological demand by population groups could explain part of these results.These differences in meaning are related to the actual stage of area development. Until now, there has been no agreement about the exact meaning of psychological Table 5. Prevalence rates for psychological distress—the prevalence ratio (PR) and the respective confidence intervals (95% CI) according to the job strain model for formal and informal jobs adjusted for age, educational level, gender, social support, time in this position ( results from the multiple logistic regression analysis). Job strain model a Prevalence PR b 95% CI (%) Formal jobs Low strain (^ decision latitude v psychological demand) 11. 5 – –Passive job (v decision latitude v psychological demand) 15. 5 1. 35 0. 64–2. 84 Active job (^ decision latitude ^ psychological demand) 23. 8 2. 07 1. 05–4. 08 High strain (^ decision latitude ^ psychological demand) 26. 7 2. 32 1. 18–4. 56 Informal jobs Low strain (^ decision latitude v psychological demand) 20. 0 – Passive job (v decision latitude v psychological demand) 24. 5 1. 23 0. 91–1. 66 Active job (^ decision latitude ^ psychological demand) 24. 1 1. 20 0. 90–1. 61 High strain (v decision latitude ^ psychological demand) 33. 1 1. 65 1. 26–2. 18 a Reference group: decision latitude and psychological demand. The delta method was used to convert odds ratios to prevalence ratios. 58 SJWEH Suppl 2008, no 6 Job content questionnaire in job s in Brazil demand in our social and cultural contexts. It remains an important question for future studies. In addition, to make this concept and correspondent scale more reliable, a clear distinction between â€Å"qualitative† and â€Å"quantitative† psychological demands has been proposed. Suggestions to include emotional demand as a job dimension has also been noted in the literature (21). High internal consistency was observed for decision authority among the formal and informal workers.The items used to evaluate the measure of worker opportunity to make decisions in both highly structured and unstructured settings performed well, as indicated by Cronbach’s alpha. It is important to note that, when these two job-control subscales are taken as a single scale—decision latitude—the reliability is acceptable for both formal and informal jobs. The subscales for coworker support and supervisory support showed the highest consistency with the demandà ¢â‚¬â€œcontrol model theory. The high consistency of these scales had been observed earlier in other studies of the validity and reliability of the job content questionnaire (14, 17) .The physical demand scale also showed good reliability for groups in formal and informal jobs. This scale has also been observed to perform well in other studies (9, 12). The factor analysis showed a structure that is consistent with the theoretical presumptions of the job strain model. Our study produced eight factors, almost all of them in an expected way. The scales for decision authority, supervisory support, coworker support, physical demand, and skill discretion were consistent with the proposed scales of the job content questionnaire, as observed in other studies (22).However, some findings of our study need to be more carefully analyzed. For example, aspects related to the physical demand scale loaded on two types of factors, showing that the job content questionnaire measured two different phy sical workloads. Although the questionnaire establishes only a scale for physical demand, Karasek & Theorell (23) assumed that two specific types of physical demand were involved in job tasks (physical exertion and physical isometric load). In fact, it is acceptable that the questionnaire includes at least two different kinds of physical demands, as observed in our study.Indeed, this result reinforces the ability of the questionnaire to measure and identify specific characteristics of the work environment. With this perspective, future improvements in the questionnaire should consider the evaluation of these two dimensions separately, instead of only one, as currently suggested. One item of the skill discretion scale was also critical. The subscale â€Å"variety† (â€Å"I get to do a variety of different things in my job†), in both the formal and informal groups, was more related to psychological demand aspects than to the skill discretion scale, as expected.The data s uggested that doing different things was not related to job enrichment in the studied population in Brazil. In fact, it represents an increase in workload. Moreover, translation difficulties could be considered a potential explanation for these specific results (cultural differences). One item related to psychological demand, â€Å"conflicting demands†, loaded on a separate factor for both the formal and informal jobs. It revealed a low correlation of this subscale with other subscales related to psychological demand, which duplicated rather precisely a problem found in studies in other countries (8, 9, 12) for this question.Our results also showed relevant problems with this subscale, reinforcing the hypothesis that changes in this item structure are needed to improve the performance of the psychological demand measurement. For the formal jobs, the item â€Å"repetitive work† did not load on the skill discretion factor, as expected. Similar results were found in studi es in other countries (7, 12, 24, 25). The low consistency of this item with the skill discretion subscale could be related to a nonnormal distribution of this aspect. Usually, repetitive work is much more frequent for the lowest skill (9) . The Portuguese version of the job content questionnaire howed a high capability to identify risk to mental health. As predicted by the control–demand model, work with high strain consistently has the highest negative effect on mental health for both formal and informal jobs, albeit more strongly for formal jobs. It supports an association between psychological distress and job strain, as pointed out in other studies on mental health (25). In conclusion, the validity and reliability of the Portuguese version of the job content questionnaire is good, and it is performed similarly among workers with formal or informal jobs in Brazil. Future research should address a detailed evaluation f the decision-latitude dimensions in informal jobs, esp ecially in relation to skill discretion, which performed regularly among informal workers and in new investigations of psychological demand indicators and their performance. Gender differences form another important aspect to be explored in future studies. Acknowledgments This study was funded by CAPES—Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel, Brazil, and partially supported by grant D43TW005749, â€Å"Work and Health in Brazil and Mexico† from the John E Fogarty Internationl Center of the US National Institutes of Health.SJWEH Suppl 2008, no 6 59 de Araujo & Karasek References 1. Siqueira E. Depend convergence—the struggle to control petrochemical hazards in Brazil and the United States. New York (NY): Baywood; 2003. 2. Araujo TM, Aquino E, Menezes G, Santos CO, Aguiar L. Work psychosocial aspects and psychological distress among nurses Rev Saude Publica. 2003;37:424–33. 3. Alves MGM, Chor D, Faerstein E, Lopes CS, Werneck GL. Short version of the â€Å"Job Stress Scale: Portuguese-language adaptation. Rev Saude Publica. 2004;38:164–71. 4. Karasek R. Job demand, job decision latitude, and mental strain: implications for job redesign.Adm Sci Q. 1979;24:285–308. 5. Rick J, Briner RB, Daniels K, Perryman S, Guppy A. 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