Computer Mediated Learning

There are many definitions available that attempt to explain learning processes delivered, enabled or mediated using electronic technology for the explicit purpose of learning. These definitions include such terms as distance learning which may occur even in the absence of electronic technology. Distance learning has for a long time been performed using correspondence (Fee, 2009).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Computer Mediated Learning specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More An example of these terms is computer mediated learning which is used to define any learning process that is facilitated by electronic technology. Computer mediated learning therefore implies that the learning could be facilitated by both one way and two way learning exchanges as well as learner to learner exchanges. Among the terms that are often used and erroneously taken to have the same meaning as computer mediated learning is the term comput er authored learning. Computer authored learning defines a learning process that is designed or engineered through the use of computer technology (Distefano, Rudestam Silverman, 2004). This mode of learning involves the use of authoring tools which are computer programs. These programs are used to create powerful scripts that can create useful learning content. Prior to the emergence of the internet such tools were commonly used to ease the process of learning. In some reports it is stated that by 1993, there were over 165 authoring tools available for use by instructors (Distefano, Rudestam Silverman, 2004). However, with the emergence of the internet web authoring tools have fast replaced these tools. In fact many web page developers have taken to use the authoring to describe the process of web page creation (Distefano, Rudestam Silverman, 2004). One major advantage that is the result of the emergence of the World Wide Web is the ease with which content can be changed and upda ted. This appears to have been a major short coming of the early models of computer authored learning tools.  Other terms that have long been used interchangeably with computer mediated learning are computer based training and computer assisted instruction. These approaches have for long used embedded questions in an instructional module to determine paths for individual students (Ifenthaler Seel, 2010). One of the most common uses of this approach is in the testing of students located in various remote locations. The modern approach is to use the results from the tests to guide the provision of instruction based on student needs (Ifenthaler Seel, 2010).  As the discussion has indicated many of these different terms were used based on the needs of the vendor.Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The goal appeared to have been to place the vendor at the center stage. Based on these ma ny definitions there has been a need to come up with a single term that will provide a convenient umbrella for all these different activities. (Fee, 2009). Terms such as distance learning that emerged from learning institutions though authoritative are still quite diverse. It is for this reason that the term e-learning is fact becoming a more convenient umbrella term than any of the previously mentioned definitions. According to the American Society for Training and Development, â€Å"e-learning covers a wide set of applications such as web based learning, computer based learning, virtual classrooms and digital collaboration† (Fee, 2009). This definition appears suitable especially due to the fact that this is the world’s largest professional body for professional development and learning. The organizations membership is reported to be in the range of 70,000 and the body can be found in almost 100 countries across the globe (Fee, 2009). This large membership and global representation makes this body more suitable than most to define learning that involves the use of computers and digital technology. It is possible that as times goes by this term and the accompanying definition will replace the many confusing terms that have been used both in the past and today to describe the role and interaction between computer, students and instruction. References DiStefano, A., Rudestam. K. E., Silverman, R. J. (2004). Encyclopedia of Distributed Learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc. Fee, K. (2009). Delivering E-Learning: A complete strategy for design, application and assessment. London: Kogan Page Limited. Ifenthaler, D., Seel, N. M. (2010). Computer-Based Diagnostics and Systematic Analysis of Knowledge. New York: Springer Science + Business Media LLC.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Computer Mediated Learning specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This essay on Computer Mediated Learning was written and submitted by user Thunderball to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Celebrate Marriage With These Love Quotes

Celebrate Marriage With These Love Quotes You dont need a marriage to legitimize your relationship. Marriages are sacred vows and hence should be undertaken only when two people in love are willing to enter into a lifetime commitment. Without love, there cannot be a happy marriage. After years of commitment and togetherness, boredom can set in. Only love can help bind the couple and keep them happy forever. Here are some marriage love quotes to help rekindle the passion of love in marriage. Love Quotes for Rekindling Your Marriage Georg C. LichtenbergLove is blind, but marriage restores its sight. Groucho MarxSome people claim that marriage interferes with romance. Theres no doubt about it. Anytime you have a romance, your wife is bound to interfere. Harriet MartineauAny one must see at a glance that if men and women marry those whom they do not love, they must love those whom they do not marry. Mark TwainLove seems the swiftest, but it is the slowest of all growths. No man or woman really knows what perfect love is until they have been married a quarter of a century. Tom MullenHappy marriages begin when we marry the ones we love, and they blossom when we love the ones we marry. David BissonetteI recently read that love is entirely a matter of chemistry. That must be why my wife treats me like toxic waste. Benjamin FranklinWhere there is marriage without love, there will be love without marriage. James GrahamLove is blind and marriage is the institution for the blind. George Bernard ShawIt is most unwise for people in love to marry. Pauline ThomasonLove is blind marriage is the eye-opener. Tom MullenHappy marriages begin when we marry the ones we love, and they blossom when we love the ones we marry. Ellen KeyLove is moral even without legal marriage, but marriage is immoral without love. Will DurantThe love we have in our youth is superficial compared to the love that an old man has for his old wife. Pearl S. BuckA good marriage is one, which allows for change and growth in the individuals and in the way they express their love. Nathaniel HawthorneWhat a happy and holy fashion it is that those who love one another should rest on the same pillow. Michel de MontaigneIf there is such a thing as a good marriage, it is because it resembles friendship rather than love. MoliereLove is often the fruit of marriage. Mignon McLaughlinAfter the chills and fever of love, how nice is the 98.6Â º of marriage! Langdon MitchellMarriage is three parts love and seven parts forgiveness of sins. Mignon McLaughlinLove requires a willingness to die; marriage, a willingness to live.

Women Empowerment Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Women Empowerment - Research Paper Example Because of the stated situation, it appears that the research industry also gives a lesser amount of attention towards the said field in relation to back injuries, specifically in the South African region. It is in this light that this paper attempts to analyze and understand the condition of female gymnasts in South Africa in association with the common back injuries they usually encounter. Age of the gymnast is an important element in this study since the physique of the body varies depending on the maturation period of an individual. For instance, the built of the body of an infant is not the same from the structure of the body of a person who is already on his or her childhood, adolescence or adulthood. Gender also plays a significant role in this research because, similar with age, it determines the body type in certain stages of development as described by Marshal and Tanner (2000). During the puberty stage of development, boys and girls have differences and similarities in terms of the changes that they experience with regards to their bodies. In this developmental stage Piaget (2000) mentioned that it is the perfect moment where an athlete realizes his or her importance in sport or the perceptual-cognitive approach to the role the athlete has in sport. The body structure as determined by age and gender is one of the important factors in gymnastics since the whole body is involved in this kind of sports. Intensity of training depends on the age and growth of the person which automatically involves the general health condition. Even though the whole body works in gymnastics, it is the lower extremities that are given due value. It is because of the reason that the lower extremities are the ones responsible for the skill necessary for balance in the course of landings from dismounts and tumbling. Aside from this, the lower extremities also grant the locomotive power and speed for the whole body. These are few of the causes why lower back injuries occur. Relative to the results of the study, most of the participants were in the puberty stage, age ranging from 12 years old to 14 years old. This means that the changes in the body, as provided by the natural development brought by the puberty stage of an individual, were also in its peak. Rogol, et al., (2000) mentioned that puberty largely affect the structure of the body, including some proportions of water, muscle, fat, and bone. Equally relative with the age of the majority of the gymnast respondents

Compare and contrast business systems in Japan and China Essay

Compare and contrast business systems in Japan and China - Essay Example al nations reformed Chinese agriculture, science, technological innovativeness, and industry transforming china into a contemporary industrial state (Broderick, 2003, p.85). The population control and the one child policy that aided to enhance the strategy towards the Chinese population feeding was also an added advantage. The rapid Japanese economic growth dates back to the WW11 and its effects in putting Japan among the few most economically advanced nations of the world. Currently, Japan is among the topmost economic powers after United States of America, China, and EU (McLeod, Ross and Garnaut, 1998). Although Japan is a increasingly small nation, it has a solid population density and most of its land does not favor agricultural production because of mountainous topography and inadequate minerals required for development of agriculture. Therefore, Japan must rely of innovation and creativity for goods production and export such goods for its economic development. Differences and similarities in the systems of business Undoubtedly, the East Asian economic development over the past over three decades can be considered as the key world surprises. As earlier mentioned the easy will concentrate on Japan and China as the main representatives in the business systems analysis, since the 1950 and 80s the economy of Japan has been a miracle due to its faster development. In the 1960s, 70s and 80s the economy increased to about 10% and 5% in average respectively, (World Bank, 1993, p. 5). Considerably later, starting late 70s the Chinese economy similarly started to show hyper-growth signs and it is currently the rapidly growing economy with about 10% growth rate in GDP average (Kim, 1998, p56). World Bank report 200, suggests that the Chinese and Japanese economic... Although distinct in various ways, Japan and China have various economic similarities and differences that set them as the top growing economies of the world. The paper seeks to compare and contrast business systems in these two nations. Therefore, to explain the diversities between the business systems of Japan and China, I will first explain what business system implies. As defined by economists, business systems implies methodological processes that are employed as a delivery means for providing certain products and services to the final users or consumer in a clearly defined market environment. The two nations share similar aspects like strong government influence in economic development and maintain focus in technology and education. Nevertheless, their disparities occupy various aspects of their systems of business. The two share similar historical cultures like the Confucius Philosophy belief, however, they form different contemporary cultures that manifest in different business cultures. Concerning the business culture, the Japanese firm business relations and cross-shareholding among groups of businesses formed a critical networks in business, although, such business connections tends to weaken the small business enterprises competitive advantage because of capital mobility. In the business systems of China, the SOE mainly play a crucial function in local industries like materials production supply of power and energy and transport. After State Owned Enterprise reformation, the market share is lower than the private sectors. Therefore, the business systems in both nati ons have some similarities and disparities and play a crucial part in global economy.

The impact of feminism on sociology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The impact of feminism on sociology - Essay Example The moment the law of lift Is violated we see the immediate effects This is a philosophical position. It seeks equality as it relates to political, legal and economic matters (Blumberg, R. 2001,). There are many more aspects but the main thrust is to achieve equality with the male counterpart. Unemployment has been a factor of society over many years. In the past governments somewhat accepted this. In this way welfare recipients were simply entitled to benefits. Since the 1970s there has been a shift in this approach. People were no longer entitled to the benefits. The shift meant that one had to qualify for the benefits. Qualifying had to do with a market economy component. This meant the introduction of the welfare to work principle (Breitkreuz, R. 2005, June)... Those people on welfare were now structured units to enter the job market. This gave focus to the real societal issues. In most societies, those on welfare women out number the men. A further reality is that most these women are mothers. Feminist studies show that employability has at least two direct challenges. First there is the need to deal with the woman’s emotional need. This need is directly related to the family commitment. In many cases the woman is referred to as the lone mother. This lone mother may be making an income. The reality is that the income is informal. In addition the income is small. The lone mother is now trapped in to maintaining this income stream. This can be seen as a coping mechanism. The second issue is the need for education. In most cases there is a skill deficiency. In other words the lone mother has a work skill. The problem is that the work skill is not in demand by the regular business economy. The two issues must be addressed together. This realization helps the society in general. The fact can be seen if we look log term as opposed to the immediate issue at hand. Helping the lone mother in the welfare to work

Location Determinants of FDI in Transition Regions

Location Determinants of FDI in Transition Regions An essential aspect of globalization in past period has been the progressing grows in foreign direct investment (FDI). According to assessments of UNCTAD (2000) experts estimation, since 1979 to 1999 the volume of the world FDI funds to worlds GDP boosted by 16 per cent and relatively the proportion of world FDI streams increased by 14 per cent. Such a progressive expansion explains as the FDI determinants plays a leading role in development of any countrys economy, in terms of macro and micro parameters (Lipsey, 2001). Most of time FDI is provided with developed countrys strong market orientations to emerging countries, where market is weak. To expose most the effective conditions which are attracts FDI determinants in the host regions, a number of researches have been done. As a result of this study has concluded that there is a large impact on a market size, GNP and economic growth rather than investment incentives. However, the circumstances of FDI are various in each country because all of them have weak and strong markets and therefore have different outcomes of FDI stocks. The transition regions such as CIS and CEE regions have been recently studied comprehensively. There is a large empirical literatures implemented the FDI effects, as an engine machine for the transition regions. Due to advantages that related to the introduction of new technologies and innovations, new managerial techniques, development of additional skills, increased capitals, improvement of working conditions and the development of the industrial sectors in the transition regions (Caves, 1974 and Perez, 1997). Although, several policy makers viewed that FDI activities might provide negative effects on countrys economic development. This diversification followed by foreigners intensity in the host markets. The traditional debate stands for relationship among FDI and the prospects for economic growth. The study is divided into six parts. Chapter two will examine the results of several empirical studies of FDI activities, by examining series of positive and negative effects on the transition regions economies. Chapter three will review the mechanism of FDI activity by exampling its various types. Moreover, this chapter will briefly estimate FDI types affects on transition companies. Chapter four draws economic overview of the Kazakhstans market condition and the intensity of economy growth since the country gained its independence, and furthermore, will illustrate foreign direct investment environment. Chapter five contains FDI challenges and problems in the Kazakhstan oil and gas field industries, and will show government strategies against foreign investors. Finally, the last chapter will conclude with the summary and implications of the study. 2. Literature review Over the past years the endowments of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) are becoming to be very important issue for transition countries. As the FDI activities contribute certain volume of assistances to the national economic growth. However the issue of FDI activities are often stands to be as the implicit hypothesis, in terms of its flows that transports benefit to the host regions economy. The impact of such disputes generally depends on FDI forms behaviour that it takes. The several evidence of empirical literatures have drawn series of positive and negative features of FDI as a basis of assistance growth for transition regions, some of which are examined below. The article by Kozima ( ) has expressed a macroeconomic explication of the FDI behaviours. Kozimas observation analysed that FDI ought to operate as channel trade for the productivity goods and thereby its direction should be followed by the market forces rather than the micro level characteristics. The FDI flows transfer and promote productivity level growth in terms of technology, management skills and know-how from the developed industries to the developing industries. As the outcome of such investment types follow by the improvement of the welfare conditions and by the increase of the industries income. The case can describe the Japanese FDI activities in Asian regions. On the other hand, in some terms FDI activities correspond to negative effects of its location decisions. This presents the case of the presence of more technology advantaged foreign company in an emerging country, where domestic industry might not be comparatively competitive and efficient to compete with the adv antaged foreign company. Therefore, the presence of more advantaged foreign company under such conditions can simply take over domestic firms market shares and decrease countrys economic welfare growth. The case explains by the United States FDI activities after the second war. De Gregorio (1992) stated that FDI may bring several benefits that persuade economic development by its advanced technologies and skilled knowledges, as such factors may promote productivity growth in emerging regions. De Gregorios studies have estimated several facts on economic growth in Latin America. This followed by increasing investment growth which is approximately implemented 0.6 per cent of GDP growth annually from 1950 to 1985. Likewise, Blomstrom and Lipsey (1992) examined FDIs positive externalities. However, such estimations studied under certain conditions that followed by high performed regions and therefore implemented positive performances. According to their studies, countries that only have attained certain level of returns can benefit from FDI activities. This can be correlated to human capitals that provide different income returns in transition regions. As well educated and skilled labour population can utilize the benefits of advanced technologies to the whole economy. The model of Malign emphasizes the potential interaction among FDI that realized by foreign company under the imperfectly competitive industry and a host region with imperfectly competitive domestic market. Hence the foreign firms operation in such market faces with several barriers to gain access into a market, and thus this increase market concentration instead of decreasing. (Cardoso and Dornbush 1989; Grieco 1986) In this term the presence of foreign company can simply turn down domestic savings and investment capacities by taking out rents and funds activity. Moreover, such case can basically trough out domestic firms from local business activities. The international firms might reinvest their capital flows to related industries in the host region and expand their market powers. The repatriation of such reinvestment profits may take out capital from the host region. Far from providing an encouraging impact on profits distribution and social environment improvements by foreigners might sustain a small power of local business partners and suppliers. As they utilize inappropriate intensive technology that might generate small number of labour forces, whereas consigning employees to the category of the unemployed, and this turns down them to set up more productive occupations. Their rigid control over advanced technology and skilled management channels may put off the favourable spillovers and externalities. It is commonly acknowledged that attracting FDI spillovers promote development effects, as the FDI activities symbolize as an essential source of technological spillovers, and as one of the resourceful and practical tools for improvement and upgrading of transition industries. (Dunning and Narula 2004) In fact, FDI spillovers have been enthusiastically supported under the Washington consensus as a universal remedy that leads economic growth and expansion. Because, structural changes highly amalgamate macroeconomic stabilization strategies along with strategies that increase FDI flows. However, the benefit levels are considerably various and the results from FDI assistances procedure are not always positive. (Lall and Narula 2004) Aitken and Harrison (1999) estimated the spillover effects to domestic companies in Venezuela. They investigated exceptionally limited effects of spillovers level. In addition, this spillover levels were mostly delivered from joint ventures. This suggested that relations among foreign and domestic company produce some amount of spillovers. However, its effects can not capture the whole economy. This can be explained when the foreign company in some way induced productivity growth but its financial sector would not be able to capture the plant stage, although it ought to capture even at the aggregate stage. The effects of political intensity have been examined by several policymakers and suggested that relationship among FDI inflows and host country firstly based on the political stability. Alesina and Perotti (1996) examined the impact of political vulnerabilities on economic development and investment. They implemented that an increase of the political intensity in the host region leads to decrease of investment flows. By implementing index of political instabilities that stands beyond of political assassinations, corruption and coups. Campos and Nugent (2002) analysed the causal linkages among investment and growth index by utilizing pooled panel statistics. According to their investigation results, it suggested that there are not so many evidences for the negative linkages among political instability and GDP growth. However, in terms of investment facilities, there are strong causalities of political vulnerability to investment decline. The relation among political volatility and asset markets has been examined by several policymakers. Robin, Liew and Stevens (1996) have examined factors of political volatility in transition regions. According to their analyses the importance of asset returns stands to be more significant in transition regions than in developing regions. As Bussiere and Mulder (1996) implemented their investigation in the twenty three regions and proposed that political vulnerabilities in economic models broadly explicate economic decline the aptitude of economic model to explicate economic decline of transition region. Moreover, they stated such conditions are vulnerable to economic crises when election consequences under uncertainty. Kutan and Zhou (1995) investigated that political intensity in Poland during 1990s had introduced economic reforms that influenced foreign exchange returns and bid-ask spreads. According to their investigation, these events reflected by political volatility that seriously harmed the national currency value in international exchange market. This consequently boosted the bid-ask spreads under the foreign exchange transactions that formulated bid-ask spreads to be more expensive for foreign investors. Likewise, Melvin and Tan (1996) examined political volatilities on foreign exchange market by their studies that implemented similar causes. Ivo Feierabend and Rosalind Feierabend (1966) formulated their Feieraben measure on political instability. This theory based on the countrys political vulnerabilities that considered the amount and concentration of political aggressiveness behaviour that takes place within a nation. According to their definition on political instability it is: the amount of Aggression directed by individual or  groups within the political system against other groups  or against the complex of officeholders and individuals  and groups associated with them. Or, conversely, it is  the amount of aggression directed by these officeholders  against other individuals, groups, or officeholders within  the polity. Using this characterization Feierabends have examined various indicate scales of political vulnerability that based on the amount and concentration of political actions. Feierabends have segregated thirty categories of political actions that were given by various weights. As the more destabilise actions, then the higher influences it obtains. For example, during the election of public servants is estimated to be zero, as this was not followed by aggressiveness of political intensity. However, in cases of assassination of high politic figures, corruptions and coups had estimated up to 5 and 7 scales. In the case of locational decision of foreign companies the political intensity of host regions might lead them out off their domestic market. Aharoni (1960) and Thunell (1977) showed that the intensity of political instability might be very significant measure in the foreign investment activities in the way of location decision. This has been examined that foreign investors in general consider the political vulnerability of the host regions in an unsystematic way. However, a foreign company that operates abroad should put forward its attention on political intensity. This would facilitate in the formulation of tactic for choosing the location and expand further its investment flows. As in some circumstances the host governments might change their political intensity in terms of nationalization. 3. The role of FDIs The priorities of developing economies are obviously comprise under constant revenue growth for their economies through strengthening technological capabilities, increasing investment rates, and enhancing the competitiveness of their production in the global marketplace. By providing the opportunities to economic growth, creating employment potentialities and conserving the environment for future population. As the globalisation and liberalization of the world economy constrains the developing economies to upgrade abilities and resources of their economies. The modern global can be classified by speedy progress in knowledge and economical capability under competitive circumstances. Therefore, in globalizing world the economic growth can be implemented constantly only if states can promote privileged value-added performances to supply goods and services for their open market strategies. Among these attitudes MNEs and FDI activities can apply for an essential function in complementing their efforts. As their assets is one of the main features of promoting local markets or entire enterprises to the international market. FDI has been characterized differently by several empirical literatures. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) describes FDI as an investment made to acquire a lasting interest in a foreign enterprise with the purpose of having an effective voice in its management (Bjorvatn, 2000). Generally, FDI activities are undertaken by Multinational Enterprises (MNEs) that provide a huge capital of investment flows over the world. These investment flows classified as a market seeking, its purpose to serve for an existing market. For instance, owing to a high tariff rates, the company needs to relocate its activities to the emerging country, as firms activities were previously supplied by exporting. The motivation for such investment in the host economy explains in better serve for a local market through production, market growth and market size. The case of Japanese FDI in vehicle production in the US can be implemented as the market seeking (Duning, 1993). The efficiency seeking appears with a firm that involves in gaining economic scale and scope activities from the host economy. In this perspective, close relations with the western countries would lead to corporate network linkages and the presence of high transport and communication costs will encourage more of efficiency-seeking FDI. Finally, the asset seeking or resource seeking occurs when a firm invest into a foreign country to find natural and low cost labour force resources that not available within their country. It might follow by natural resources, cheap labour forces and furthermore, by raw materials. Again the case of the UN and Japan can present the view of asset seeking by searching for a cheap labour force in Asia. In contrast to market seeking, it is able to serve for a home and for a third countrys market. This tendency follows particularly by industrialised sectors that subsidized by MNEs. Therefore, such accessibilities in physical infrastructure and skilled and cheap labour forces are the main trends of resource seeking. 3.1. FDI types In analysing market entry through FDI flows, there two choices such as, greenfield investment and takeover of an existing company. Through greenfield investments a company which invests a small amount of inputs, and afterwards when demand increases it can enlarge that investment. A greenfield investment frequently sets up from building a new company after the governments of host countries would approve that, because of the location perhaps can be in the profitable place and produce a new production capacity. In discussing another type of FDI is the takeover of an existing business through the acquisitions and mergers (MA). In other words, foreign companies appear in the emerging countries and purchases already existing local business by gaining the packages of the company, as a result, such companies turn out to be an affiliated. In the past years MA have seen massive surge by reaching more than 50 per cent (Theodore 1998). Admittedly, there are several trends that foreign firms seek to invest their capitals abroad. These features were partly analysed by Dunnings OLI theory. As Dunning (1993) describes three conditions that firms carry to take FDI activities. Ownership advantages- appears, when the foreign firm is capable to compete with the domestic firm. It can be attained through specific skills or assets that follow by advanced management and technological capabilities. Companies that endowed with ownership advantages basically enlarge their operations in a foreign country to internalize the growing benefits from ownership advantages. Location advantages- aspects as natural and mineral resources, transport costs and low prices, access to the domestic market determine the presence of the investment. Moreover, factors such as social and political stability and business environment that follows by stable prices and sustainable budget deficit determines location. Internalization advantages- occurs, when the foreign firm is able to retain its multiple activities, rather than licensing or franchising technology to local firms. The case can be implemented, when the firm prevents the technology or assets imitation by rival firms. According to OLI theory, all these criterions should be fulfilled for firms to invest in the host economies. In terms of investment incentives, Dunning (1993) pointed that OLI theory is generally stands for a characteristic of the host country and for the MNEs. This follows by attracted or specific location, skilled or cheap labour forces, infrastructure and political stability. Undoubtedly, these trends are very significant for the location of FDI assets, however, the significance of investment incentives have raised in the past years. Over the world countries have lowered their entry barriers to persuade a massive amount of foreign subsidizes and generated FDI incentives to attract more foreign investment flows. Therefore, operations such as low taxes, attractive tariff regimes, and market preferences, investment in infrastructure, financial grants and loans for the foreign firms took the form of investment incentives. Basically, FDI incentives are similar in developed and developing regions. Regarding to UNSTAD (2001), a small number of regions participate for FDI activities without subs idies nowadays. This report estimates that 95 per cent of adjustments in FDI legislations for the 1990s were encouraging to foreign companies and furthermore, these adjustments followed by FDI promotions and incentives. The motivation of such reasons primarily tended by prospect of seeing positive spillovers inflows into host economies UNSTAD (2001). In the context of positive spillovers host governments tries to attract foreign subsidizes to their economies as they considers that FDIs spillovers generate positive externalities to the domestic companies by transferring know-how and advanced technology. The following terms can be implemented Domestic companies might benefit from foreign production processes as they diffuse new technologies. It can be implemented through labour turnover and through imitation. As the foreign firms gain access into domestic market equilibrium, it is makes domestic companies to be more an incentive to protect market shares income (Ponomareva, 2000). These systematic alterations might cause various sorts of spillovers that bring to productivity growth into domestic companies, as the spillovers effects from foreign companies can be significant. On the other hand, several literatures provided that spillovers effects can have negative forms. In article by Aitken and Harrison (1999) the negative impacts of spillovers introduced on the domestic firms productivity, in terms of market steeling effect. For example, when the foreign company gain access to the foreign market and take over local market shares by its technology advantages. In other words, the MNEs advantages can simply trough out domestic firms productivities and so, local companys productivity declines. 3.2. Spillover activities and types. There is a large empirical study that implements the significance of spillover activities in the host economies. According to Blomstrom and Kokko (1997), the importance of the FDI spillovers is not only the investment in a new plant and equipment, but also transfers of technology, skills and capital for the host countries. Consequently, FDI arrives through managerial and financial resources, technical support and strategic assets. This can be companys brand name that takes place by comparative advantage to domestic entrepreneurs. Spillover activities can be taken during foreign companies presence that provides efficiency and productivity to the domestic firms. The positive spillovers followed by foreign investment enterprises that provide benefits to domestic companies, in terms of productivity technologies that do not exhaust cost for gains (UN-ECE, 2001). In the perspective of the FDI spillovers, several policymakers have concerned that the presence of foreign firms lead to productivity growth of domestic companies. Whereas, other authors implemented that, there is also a negative impact of FDI spillovers. One of the common explanations of FDI in transition regions is assistance in restructuring domestic firms. As Wallner (1998) suggest that, partly an emerging firm occurs under the soft budget constraint and thereby FDIs activity might provide in a positive way. As the presence of the foreign firms provide various incentives to reduce funds to domestic companies and as a result involves in companies restructuring. Another positive feature of FDI spillovers importance is transfer of technology and know-how to domestic firms. On the other hand, this can also provide negative spillovers. For instance, in terms of product market under imperfect competition, that can follow by a considerable decrease of the market shares of the local firm s and moreover, can trough out domestic firms from the market. The literature by De Gregorio and Lee (1998) and Kokko and Borensztien (1994) stated that FDI spillovers can generate in positive way, if only the technology development among foreign and domestic company is not so great. The trends of positive spillovers were found in the next literatures Blomstrom, Sjoholm (1999) in Indonesia, Caves (1974) in Australia and Globerman (1979) in Canada. In the case of negative spillovers the following studies such as Kornings (1999) in Poland and Romania and Aitken and Harrison (1999) in Venezuela have implemented such effects Spillover activities determine two approaches such as direct and indirect approach. The direct approach examines through statistical examples, as the spillover activities are directly correlated to presence of foreign firms (Blomstrom et.al.1999). The purpose of the direct approach frequently leads to productivity measure of local firms to the MNEs presences. There is on common method that utilizes evaluation of production functions that estimates through the foreign firms presences upon industry productivities and on its levels. In studies of econometric the spillover activities might expose the total impact of productivity to host firms under the foreign presence. However, the impacts are frequently not specific nor implement its effects (Blomstrom and Kokko 2003). The indirect approach examines through channels in which FDI spillovers may take in, and afterwards estimate the forcefulness of those channels. Likewise direct approach, there is a large studies on its channels, but it can be difficult to implement general conclusion from these studies (Blomstrom et.al.1999). Another spillover activity in the host industries persuaded by two types such as inter (vertical) and intra (horizontal) industry spillovers. The vertical spillovers appear when foreign company provide impacts to the domestic suppliers. This can be under different industries that engaged in a long term contract among foreign company and a domestic supplier (Smarzynka, 2002). The horizontal spillovers result from the occurrence of the MNEs that brings competition to the host economy. There are five channels that chase horizontal spillover activities such as competition, transfer of technology and RD, industrial management, demonstration and imitation activities and human capital and labour turnover (Blomstrom et. at. 1999). According to UNECE report (2001), on intra industry spillovers in transition regions have estimated FDIs horizontal and vertical impacts. The following (Table 2) estimated that basically the presences of foreign companies did not perform better and thus, they have not generated the expected positive spillovers to local companies. Virtually, the FDI spillovers turned to be negative in these manufacturing regions. Generally, CEE regions were under negative coefficient performances. The exception was followed with Estonias and Russias manufactures which are presented positive coefficients. The results suggested that it is not unexpected as the initial conditions and economic environment was critical during the transition period. Those countries essentially had experienced various shocks and thus, local companies were not capable to react to the challenges that followed by FDI. This however, can be temporary factors and these regions will be more competitive with the next FDI flows. 3.3. FDI flows in transition economies. Over the decade ago the former Soviet Countries and central and eastern Europe regions have been transferred themselves from centrally planned system to open market economy. This systemic transformation has seen a massive upsurge in FDI inflows that afterwards assisted to recovery their internal economic vulnerabilities. As the initial stages of economy conditions experienced several economic shocks and therefore domestic growth of these regions went down. According to UNECE report (2001) the industrial productivity decreased by 34 per cent over the transition regions. Furthermore, in some regions it even followed by 64 per cent. This economic collapse was stated by macroeconomic imbalances, monetary overhangs, and by external debts. Consequently, these host regions were under extremely necessitate of liberalization, privatization and stabilization reforms that followed with the foreign subsidizes. There are strong evidences that FDI tends to boost the initial stage of economic perfo rmances. The following trends were considered such as, FDI frequently helps to the host country to amalgamate into the global economy. FDI increases the aggregate rate of investment. FDI generates transformation of hard technology that process technology and product. FDI engenders relocation of soft technology that processes organization, management and sourcing technologies FDI tends to encourage networking and subcontracting patterns that conducive for host firms to improve their technologies and productivities. (Dyker 1999) Thus, the importance of FDI in these regions was not only in supplying funds for the acquisition of new equipment, but also it seen transformation of advanced technology and organisational forms that led from more developed economies. Attracting FDI assets are considerable issue for the transition regions, as it leads to catch up policy with more developed economies by improving their economic efficiency. According to Transition Report (EBRD 2007), in the past decade the former soviet regions and central and eastern European countries have been successfully stabilized their economic circumstances. As their living standards have improved and moreover political, social, economic and legal issues were adopted and improved by state agencies. The transformation processes however implemented in different stage as their initial conditions were varied over all regions. Some of regions have simply been mistreated by foreign investors as the investment inflows directed more toward to some regi ons. (EBRD, 1999, Henriot, 2003) This discrepancy might be implemented by the high economic dynamism of more advanced transition economies. There are some regions that have been under the greater concern to investors due to of their mineral wealth resources, and close frontiers to the European Union countries. Moreover, in the last 10 years, it was obvious that foreign investors were in favour to a more stable political economy and to a favourable environment that had followed a consistent privatization policy (Henriot, 2003). According to table the following four regions experienced a large amount of FDI flows. It is clearly seen that Hungarys state was dominant in foreign investment flows. Its economic condition was greater then in other regions and furthermore political relations with the western countries brought attention of foreigners. As the view of Hungary implemented beneficial infrastructure and economical ability to adopt foreign subsidizes. In addition, in its early sophisticated privatization strategy on state owned firms made favourable environment for foreign investors. Likewise FDI flows in Poland and Czech Republic also had experienced a fast growth. This rapid increase was experienced through acquisition of state owned enterprises that had involved foreign investors. The Slovaks FDI inflows entered later in contrast to Hungary, Poland and Czech Republic and therefore had the lowest rate. Although, in most cases its small sized enterprises were privatized by foreign investors. Through the government policy that could proceed with the well managed economic reforms and externa l relations with the neighbouring regions. The total stock of FDI inflows for country size by population and GDP analysed that Hungary and the Czech Republic have succeeded significantly then Poland and Slovak Republic. Nevertheless, these regions tended to recover faster in contrast to the CIS regions. In the perspective of CIS regions, FDI stocks remain with low attitudes, despite their performance in accomplishing macroeconomic policy and managing relatively high growth rate. (Table 2.1.) illustrates that regions such as Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan have chased the largest proportion of FDI stocks, whereas Tajikistan demonstrated the lowest amount of FDI stocks. Similarly, shares of FDI stocks in GDP for Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan have performed better. In terms of per capita of FDI stocks, regions as Kyrgyzstan and Azerbaijan have performed worthily, whereas Uzbekistan and Azerbaijan turned with the lowest rate. In comparing the result of FDI stock levels of Central European to Central Asian regions, the Republic of Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Russia were shown with the better perform attitudes. This impact followed with large inflows of FDI stocks in oil and gas fields. Nevertheless, these regions levels of FDI stocks are still smaller then in other central European regions. The case of such underperformance of the some CIS regions can be attributed by the tardiness in privatization, incapability and disinclination in reform strategies and inefficienc Location Determinants of FDI in Transition Regions Location Determinants of FDI in Transition Regions An essential aspect of globalization in past period has been the progressing grows in foreign direct investment (FDI). According to assessments of UNCTAD (2000) experts estimation, since 1979 to 1999 the volume of the world FDI funds to worlds GDP boosted by 16 per cent and relatively the proportion of world FDI streams increased by 14 per cent. Such a progressive expansion explains as the FDI determinants plays a leading role in development of any countrys economy, in terms of macro and micro parameters (Lipsey, 2001). Most of time FDI is provided with developed countrys strong market orientations to emerging countries, where market is weak. To expose most the effective conditions which are attracts FDI determinants in the host regions, a number of researches have been done. As a result of this study has concluded that there is a large impact on a market size, GNP and economic growth rather than investment incentives. However, the circumstances of FDI are various in each country because all of them have weak and strong markets and therefore have different outcomes of FDI stocks. The transition regions such as CIS and CEE regions have been recently studied comprehensively. There is a large empirical literatures implemented the FDI effects, as an engine machine for the transition regions. Due to advantages that related to the introduction of new technologies and innovations, new managerial techniques, development of additional skills, increased capitals, improvement of working conditions and the development of the industrial sectors in the transition regions (Caves, 1974 and Perez, 1997). Although, several policy makers viewed that FDI activities might provide negative effects on countrys economic development. This diversification followed by foreigners intensity in the host markets. The traditional debate stands for relationship among FDI and the prospects for economic growth. The study is divided into six parts. Chapter two will examine the results of several empirical studies of FDI activities, by examining series of positive and negative effects on the transition regions economies. Chapter three will review the mechanism of FDI activity by exampling its various types. Moreover, this chapter will briefly estimate FDI types affects on transition companies. Chapter four draws economic overview of the Kazakhstans market condition and the intensity of economy growth since the country gained its independence, and furthermore, will illustrate foreign direct investment environment. Chapter five contains FDI challenges and problems in the Kazakhstan oil and gas field industries, and will show government strategies against foreign investors. Finally, the last chapter will conclude with the summary and implications of the study. 2. Literature review Over the past years the endowments of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) are becoming to be very important issue for transition countries. As the FDI activities contribute certain volume of assistances to the national economic growth. However the issue of FDI activities are often stands to be as the implicit hypothesis, in terms of its flows that transports benefit to the host regions economy. The impact of such disputes generally depends on FDI forms behaviour that it takes. The several evidence of empirical literatures have drawn series of positive and negative features of FDI as a basis of assistance growth for transition regions, some of which are examined below. The article by Kozima ( ) has expressed a macroeconomic explication of the FDI behaviours. Kozimas observation analysed that FDI ought to operate as channel trade for the productivity goods and thereby its direction should be followed by the market forces rather than the micro level characteristics. The FDI flows transfer and promote productivity level growth in terms of technology, management skills and know-how from the developed industries to the developing industries. As the outcome of such investment types follow by the improvement of the welfare conditions and by the increase of the industries income. The case can describe the Japanese FDI activities in Asian regions. On the other hand, in some terms FDI activities correspond to negative effects of its location decisions. This presents the case of the presence of more technology advantaged foreign company in an emerging country, where domestic industry might not be comparatively competitive and efficient to compete with the adv antaged foreign company. Therefore, the presence of more advantaged foreign company under such conditions can simply take over domestic firms market shares and decrease countrys economic welfare growth. The case explains by the United States FDI activities after the second war. De Gregorio (1992) stated that FDI may bring several benefits that persuade economic development by its advanced technologies and skilled knowledges, as such factors may promote productivity growth in emerging regions. De Gregorios studies have estimated several facts on economic growth in Latin America. This followed by increasing investment growth which is approximately implemented 0.6 per cent of GDP growth annually from 1950 to 1985. Likewise, Blomstrom and Lipsey (1992) examined FDIs positive externalities. However, such estimations studied under certain conditions that followed by high performed regions and therefore implemented positive performances. According to their studies, countries that only have attained certain level of returns can benefit from FDI activities. This can be correlated to human capitals that provide different income returns in transition regions. As well educated and skilled labour population can utilize the benefits of advanced technologies to the whole economy. The model of Malign emphasizes the potential interaction among FDI that realized by foreign company under the imperfectly competitive industry and a host region with imperfectly competitive domestic market. Hence the foreign firms operation in such market faces with several barriers to gain access into a market, and thus this increase market concentration instead of decreasing. (Cardoso and Dornbush 1989; Grieco 1986) In this term the presence of foreign company can simply turn down domestic savings and investment capacities by taking out rents and funds activity. Moreover, such case can basically trough out domestic firms from local business activities. The international firms might reinvest their capital flows to related industries in the host region and expand their market powers. The repatriation of such reinvestment profits may take out capital from the host region. Far from providing an encouraging impact on profits distribution and social environment improvements by foreigners might sustain a small power of local business partners and suppliers. As they utilize inappropriate intensive technology that might generate small number of labour forces, whereas consigning employees to the category of the unemployed, and this turns down them to set up more productive occupations. Their rigid control over advanced technology and skilled management channels may put off the favourable spillovers and externalities. It is commonly acknowledged that attracting FDI spillovers promote development effects, as the FDI activities symbolize as an essential source of technological spillovers, and as one of the resourceful and practical tools for improvement and upgrading of transition industries. (Dunning and Narula 2004) In fact, FDI spillovers have been enthusiastically supported under the Washington consensus as a universal remedy that leads economic growth and expansion. Because, structural changes highly amalgamate macroeconomic stabilization strategies along with strategies that increase FDI flows. However, the benefit levels are considerably various and the results from FDI assistances procedure are not always positive. (Lall and Narula 2004) Aitken and Harrison (1999) estimated the spillover effects to domestic companies in Venezuela. They investigated exceptionally limited effects of spillovers level. In addition, this spillover levels were mostly delivered from joint ventures. This suggested that relations among foreign and domestic company produce some amount of spillovers. However, its effects can not capture the whole economy. This can be explained when the foreign company in some way induced productivity growth but its financial sector would not be able to capture the plant stage, although it ought to capture even at the aggregate stage. The effects of political intensity have been examined by several policymakers and suggested that relationship among FDI inflows and host country firstly based on the political stability. Alesina and Perotti (1996) examined the impact of political vulnerabilities on economic development and investment. They implemented that an increase of the political intensity in the host region leads to decrease of investment flows. By implementing index of political instabilities that stands beyond of political assassinations, corruption and coups. Campos and Nugent (2002) analysed the causal linkages among investment and growth index by utilizing pooled panel statistics. According to their investigation results, it suggested that there are not so many evidences for the negative linkages among political instability and GDP growth. However, in terms of investment facilities, there are strong causalities of political vulnerability to investment decline. The relation among political volatility and asset markets has been examined by several policymakers. Robin, Liew and Stevens (1996) have examined factors of political volatility in transition regions. According to their analyses the importance of asset returns stands to be more significant in transition regions than in developing regions. As Bussiere and Mulder (1996) implemented their investigation in the twenty three regions and proposed that political vulnerabilities in economic models broadly explicate economic decline the aptitude of economic model to explicate economic decline of transition region. Moreover, they stated such conditions are vulnerable to economic crises when election consequences under uncertainty. Kutan and Zhou (1995) investigated that political intensity in Poland during 1990s had introduced economic reforms that influenced foreign exchange returns and bid-ask spreads. According to their investigation, these events reflected by political volatility that seriously harmed the national currency value in international exchange market. This consequently boosted the bid-ask spreads under the foreign exchange transactions that formulated bid-ask spreads to be more expensive for foreign investors. Likewise, Melvin and Tan (1996) examined political volatilities on foreign exchange market by their studies that implemented similar causes. Ivo Feierabend and Rosalind Feierabend (1966) formulated their Feieraben measure on political instability. This theory based on the countrys political vulnerabilities that considered the amount and concentration of political aggressiveness behaviour that takes place within a nation. According to their definition on political instability it is: the amount of Aggression directed by individual or  groups within the political system against other groups  or against the complex of officeholders and individuals  and groups associated with them. Or, conversely, it is  the amount of aggression directed by these officeholders  against other individuals, groups, or officeholders within  the polity. Using this characterization Feierabends have examined various indicate scales of political vulnerability that based on the amount and concentration of political actions. Feierabends have segregated thirty categories of political actions that were given by various weights. As the more destabilise actions, then the higher influences it obtains. For example, during the election of public servants is estimated to be zero, as this was not followed by aggressiveness of political intensity. However, in cases of assassination of high politic figures, corruptions and coups had estimated up to 5 and 7 scales. In the case of locational decision of foreign companies the political intensity of host regions might lead them out off their domestic market. Aharoni (1960) and Thunell (1977) showed that the intensity of political instability might be very significant measure in the foreign investment activities in the way of location decision. This has been examined that foreign investors in general consider the political vulnerability of the host regions in an unsystematic way. However, a foreign company that operates abroad should put forward its attention on political intensity. This would facilitate in the formulation of tactic for choosing the location and expand further its investment flows. As in some circumstances the host governments might change their political intensity in terms of nationalization. 3. The role of FDIs The priorities of developing economies are obviously comprise under constant revenue growth for their economies through strengthening technological capabilities, increasing investment rates, and enhancing the competitiveness of their production in the global marketplace. By providing the opportunities to economic growth, creating employment potentialities and conserving the environment for future population. As the globalisation and liberalization of the world economy constrains the developing economies to upgrade abilities and resources of their economies. The modern global can be classified by speedy progress in knowledge and economical capability under competitive circumstances. Therefore, in globalizing world the economic growth can be implemented constantly only if states can promote privileged value-added performances to supply goods and services for their open market strategies. Among these attitudes MNEs and FDI activities can apply for an essential function in complementing their efforts. As their assets is one of the main features of promoting local markets or entire enterprises to the international market. FDI has been characterized differently by several empirical literatures. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) describes FDI as an investment made to acquire a lasting interest in a foreign enterprise with the purpose of having an effective voice in its management (Bjorvatn, 2000). Generally, FDI activities are undertaken by Multinational Enterprises (MNEs) that provide a huge capital of investment flows over the world. These investment flows classified as a market seeking, its purpose to serve for an existing market. For instance, owing to a high tariff rates, the company needs to relocate its activities to the emerging country, as firms activities were previously supplied by exporting. The motivation for such investment in the host economy explains in better serve for a local market through production, market growth and market size. The case of Japanese FDI in vehicle production in the US can be implemented as the market seeking (Duning, 1993). The efficiency seeking appears with a firm that involves in gaining economic scale and scope activities from the host economy. In this perspective, close relations with the western countries would lead to corporate network linkages and the presence of high transport and communication costs will encourage more of efficiency-seeking FDI. Finally, the asset seeking or resource seeking occurs when a firm invest into a foreign country to find natural and low cost labour force resources that not available within their country. It might follow by natural resources, cheap labour forces and furthermore, by raw materials. Again the case of the UN and Japan can present the view of asset seeking by searching for a cheap labour force in Asia. In contrast to market seeking, it is able to serve for a home and for a third countrys market. This tendency follows particularly by industrialised sectors that subsidized by MNEs. Therefore, such accessibilities in physical infrastructure and skilled and cheap labour forces are the main trends of resource seeking. 3.1. FDI types In analysing market entry through FDI flows, there two choices such as, greenfield investment and takeover of an existing company. Through greenfield investments a company which invests a small amount of inputs, and afterwards when demand increases it can enlarge that investment. A greenfield investment frequently sets up from building a new company after the governments of host countries would approve that, because of the location perhaps can be in the profitable place and produce a new production capacity. In discussing another type of FDI is the takeover of an existing business through the acquisitions and mergers (MA). In other words, foreign companies appear in the emerging countries and purchases already existing local business by gaining the packages of the company, as a result, such companies turn out to be an affiliated. In the past years MA have seen massive surge by reaching more than 50 per cent (Theodore 1998). Admittedly, there are several trends that foreign firms seek to invest their capitals abroad. These features were partly analysed by Dunnings OLI theory. As Dunning (1993) describes three conditions that firms carry to take FDI activities. Ownership advantages- appears, when the foreign firm is capable to compete with the domestic firm. It can be attained through specific skills or assets that follow by advanced management and technological capabilities. Companies that endowed with ownership advantages basically enlarge their operations in a foreign country to internalize the growing benefits from ownership advantages. Location advantages- aspects as natural and mineral resources, transport costs and low prices, access to the domestic market determine the presence of the investment. Moreover, factors such as social and political stability and business environment that follows by stable prices and sustainable budget deficit determines location. Internalization advantages- occurs, when the foreign firm is able to retain its multiple activities, rather than licensing or franchising technology to local firms. The case can be implemented, when the firm prevents the technology or assets imitation by rival firms. According to OLI theory, all these criterions should be fulfilled for firms to invest in the host economies. In terms of investment incentives, Dunning (1993) pointed that OLI theory is generally stands for a characteristic of the host country and for the MNEs. This follows by attracted or specific location, skilled or cheap labour forces, infrastructure and political stability. Undoubtedly, these trends are very significant for the location of FDI assets, however, the significance of investment incentives have raised in the past years. Over the world countries have lowered their entry barriers to persuade a massive amount of foreign subsidizes and generated FDI incentives to attract more foreign investment flows. Therefore, operations such as low taxes, attractive tariff regimes, and market preferences, investment in infrastructure, financial grants and loans for the foreign firms took the form of investment incentives. Basically, FDI incentives are similar in developed and developing regions. Regarding to UNSTAD (2001), a small number of regions participate for FDI activities without subs idies nowadays. This report estimates that 95 per cent of adjustments in FDI legislations for the 1990s were encouraging to foreign companies and furthermore, these adjustments followed by FDI promotions and incentives. The motivation of such reasons primarily tended by prospect of seeing positive spillovers inflows into host economies UNSTAD (2001). In the context of positive spillovers host governments tries to attract foreign subsidizes to their economies as they considers that FDIs spillovers generate positive externalities to the domestic companies by transferring know-how and advanced technology. The following terms can be implemented Domestic companies might benefit from foreign production processes as they diffuse new technologies. It can be implemented through labour turnover and through imitation. As the foreign firms gain access into domestic market equilibrium, it is makes domestic companies to be more an incentive to protect market shares income (Ponomareva, 2000). These systematic alterations might cause various sorts of spillovers that bring to productivity growth into domestic companies, as the spillovers effects from foreign companies can be significant. On the other hand, several literatures provided that spillovers effects can have negative forms. In article by Aitken and Harrison (1999) the negative impacts of spillovers introduced on the domestic firms productivity, in terms of market steeling effect. For example, when the foreign company gain access to the foreign market and take over local market shares by its technology advantages. In other words, the MNEs advantages can simply trough out domestic firms productivities and so, local companys productivity declines. 3.2. Spillover activities and types. There is a large empirical study that implements the significance of spillover activities in the host economies. According to Blomstrom and Kokko (1997), the importance of the FDI spillovers is not only the investment in a new plant and equipment, but also transfers of technology, skills and capital for the host countries. Consequently, FDI arrives through managerial and financial resources, technical support and strategic assets. This can be companys brand name that takes place by comparative advantage to domestic entrepreneurs. Spillover activities can be taken during foreign companies presence that provides efficiency and productivity to the domestic firms. The positive spillovers followed by foreign investment enterprises that provide benefits to domestic companies, in terms of productivity technologies that do not exhaust cost for gains (UN-ECE, 2001). In the perspective of the FDI spillovers, several policymakers have concerned that the presence of foreign firms lead to productivity growth of domestic companies. Whereas, other authors implemented that, there is also a negative impact of FDI spillovers. One of the common explanations of FDI in transition regions is assistance in restructuring domestic firms. As Wallner (1998) suggest that, partly an emerging firm occurs under the soft budget constraint and thereby FDIs activity might provide in a positive way. As the presence of the foreign firms provide various incentives to reduce funds to domestic companies and as a result involves in companies restructuring. Another positive feature of FDI spillovers importance is transfer of technology and know-how to domestic firms. On the other hand, this can also provide negative spillovers. For instance, in terms of product market under imperfect competition, that can follow by a considerable decrease of the market shares of the local firm s and moreover, can trough out domestic firms from the market. The literature by De Gregorio and Lee (1998) and Kokko and Borensztien (1994) stated that FDI spillovers can generate in positive way, if only the technology development among foreign and domestic company is not so great. The trends of positive spillovers were found in the next literatures Blomstrom, Sjoholm (1999) in Indonesia, Caves (1974) in Australia and Globerman (1979) in Canada. In the case of negative spillovers the following studies such as Kornings (1999) in Poland and Romania and Aitken and Harrison (1999) in Venezuela have implemented such effects Spillover activities determine two approaches such as direct and indirect approach. The direct approach examines through statistical examples, as the spillover activities are directly correlated to presence of foreign firms (Blomstrom et.al.1999). The purpose of the direct approach frequently leads to productivity measure of local firms to the MNEs presences. There is on common method that utilizes evaluation of production functions that estimates through the foreign firms presences upon industry productivities and on its levels. In studies of econometric the spillover activities might expose the total impact of productivity to host firms under the foreign presence. However, the impacts are frequently not specific nor implement its effects (Blomstrom and Kokko 2003). The indirect approach examines through channels in which FDI spillovers may take in, and afterwards estimate the forcefulness of those channels. Likewise direct approach, there is a large studies on its channels, but it can be difficult to implement general conclusion from these studies (Blomstrom et.al.1999). Another spillover activity in the host industries persuaded by two types such as inter (vertical) and intra (horizontal) industry spillovers. The vertical spillovers appear when foreign company provide impacts to the domestic suppliers. This can be under different industries that engaged in a long term contract among foreign company and a domestic supplier (Smarzynka, 2002). The horizontal spillovers result from the occurrence of the MNEs that brings competition to the host economy. There are five channels that chase horizontal spillover activities such as competition, transfer of technology and RD, industrial management, demonstration and imitation activities and human capital and labour turnover (Blomstrom et. at. 1999). According to UNECE report (2001), on intra industry spillovers in transition regions have estimated FDIs horizontal and vertical impacts. The following (Table 2) estimated that basically the presences of foreign companies did not perform better and thus, they have not generated the expected positive spillovers to local companies. Virtually, the FDI spillovers turned to be negative in these manufacturing regions. Generally, CEE regions were under negative coefficient performances. The exception was followed with Estonias and Russias manufactures which are presented positive coefficients. The results suggested that it is not unexpected as the initial conditions and economic environment was critical during the transition period. Those countries essentially had experienced various shocks and thus, local companies were not capable to react to the challenges that followed by FDI. This however, can be temporary factors and these regions will be more competitive with the next FDI flows. 3.3. FDI flows in transition economies. Over the decade ago the former Soviet Countries and central and eastern Europe regions have been transferred themselves from centrally planned system to open market economy. This systemic transformation has seen a massive upsurge in FDI inflows that afterwards assisted to recovery their internal economic vulnerabilities. As the initial stages of economy conditions experienced several economic shocks and therefore domestic growth of these regions went down. According to UNECE report (2001) the industrial productivity decreased by 34 per cent over the transition regions. Furthermore, in some regions it even followed by 64 per cent. This economic collapse was stated by macroeconomic imbalances, monetary overhangs, and by external debts. Consequently, these host regions were under extremely necessitate of liberalization, privatization and stabilization reforms that followed with the foreign subsidizes. There are strong evidences that FDI tends to boost the initial stage of economic perfo rmances. The following trends were considered such as, FDI frequently helps to the host country to amalgamate into the global economy. FDI increases the aggregate rate of investment. FDI generates transformation of hard technology that process technology and product. FDI engenders relocation of soft technology that processes organization, management and sourcing technologies FDI tends to encourage networking and subcontracting patterns that conducive for host firms to improve their technologies and productivities. (Dyker 1999) Thus, the importance of FDI in these regions was not only in supplying funds for the acquisition of new equipment, but also it seen transformation of advanced technology and organisational forms that led from more developed economies. Attracting FDI assets are considerable issue for the transition regions, as it leads to catch up policy with more developed economies by improving their economic efficiency. According to Transition Report (EBRD 2007), in the past decade the former soviet regions and central and eastern European countries have been successfully stabilized their economic circumstances. As their living standards have improved and moreover political, social, economic and legal issues were adopted and improved by state agencies. The transformation processes however implemented in different stage as their initial conditions were varied over all regions. Some of regions have simply been mistreated by foreign investors as the investment inflows directed more toward to some regi ons. (EBRD, 1999, Henriot, 2003) This discrepancy might be implemented by the high economic dynamism of more advanced transition economies. There are some regions that have been under the greater concern to investors due to of their mineral wealth resources, and close frontiers to the European Union countries. Moreover, in the last 10 years, it was obvious that foreign investors were in favour to a more stable political economy and to a favourable environment that had followed a consistent privatization policy (Henriot, 2003). According to table the following four regions experienced a large amount of FDI flows. It is clearly seen that Hungarys state was dominant in foreign investment flows. Its economic condition was greater then in other regions and furthermore political relations with the western countries brought attention of foreigners. As the view of Hungary implemented beneficial infrastructure and economical ability to adopt foreign subsidizes. In addition, in its early sophisticated privatization strategy on state owned firms made favourable environment for foreign investors. Likewise FDI flows in Poland and Czech Republic also had experienced a fast growth. This rapid increase was experienced through acquisition of state owned enterprises that had involved foreign investors. The Slovaks FDI inflows entered later in contrast to Hungary, Poland and Czech Republic and therefore had the lowest rate. Although, in most cases its small sized enterprises were privatized by foreign investors. Through the government policy that could proceed with the well managed economic reforms and externa l relations with the neighbouring regions. The total stock of FDI inflows for country size by population and GDP analysed that Hungary and the Czech Republic have succeeded significantly then Poland and Slovak Republic. Nevertheless, these regions tended to recover faster in contrast to the CIS regions. In the perspective of CIS regions, FDI stocks remain with low attitudes, despite their performance in accomplishing macroeconomic policy and managing relatively high growth rate. (Table 2.1.) illustrates that regions such as Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan have chased the largest proportion of FDI stocks, whereas Tajikistan demonstrated the lowest amount of FDI stocks. Similarly, shares of FDI stocks in GDP for Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan have performed better. In terms of per capita of FDI stocks, regions as Kyrgyzstan and Azerbaijan have performed worthily, whereas Uzbekistan and Azerbaijan turned with the lowest rate. In comparing the result of FDI stock levels of Central European to Central Asian regions, the Republic of Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Russia were shown with the better perform attitudes. This impact followed with large inflows of FDI stocks in oil and gas fields. Nevertheless, these regions levels of FDI stocks are still smaller then in other central European regions. The case of such underperformance of the some CIS regions can be attributed by the tardiness in privatization, incapability and disinclination in reform strategies and inefficienc

Transatlantic Airlines Report

We have analyzed the existing booking policy of TransAtlantic Airlines and identified potential cost saving.The implementation of the suggested new booking policy would lead to reduction of total expected costs per flight on average by  £8,100.Furthermore, the new policy would increase the predictability of total costs per flight. With 90% confidence new costs will be in a range  £750 and  £4,800 as compared to the current range of  £1,900 to  £20,300. The comparative description of the policies is presented in table 1.Analysis of existing policy quick fixBase case modelThe foundation of current policy is based on the analysis in table 1. We observe that the total costs for both classes are  £6,250. The analysis of existing model indicates that there are two controllable variables in yellow (booking level in both classes) and two uncontrollable variables in green (no-show %).Table Foundation of existing policyThe available data indicates that current policy assumes some e mpty seats on the plane. As there is no immediate justification to this assumption, overbooking of the plane should be targeted to minimize the costs.Table Quick policy fix By increasing the booking level for both classes,  £0 costs can be achieved (table 2).Scenario analysisTransAtlantic does not have data retention policy in place. Hence, TransAtlantic has applied the consensus of experts for the scenario analysis. The percentage of no-shows varies between 3% and 8% in economy class and 15%-30% in business.Our calculations indicate that base case scenario is equal to the best case scenario. The main reason is that both cases of over- and under booking the company incurs costs, therefore the cost minimization is only achieved when the number of passengers in each class taking the flight is equal to the corresponding capacities (table 1).In the worst case scenario, we assume the maximum no-show in both classes. The data in table 3 demonstrates that the cost of the missed opportuni ties (e.g. missed fare) is much higher than the passenger compensation costsWe have calculated that in the worst case the company can experience the loss of revenues of  £23,250 per flight.Table Worst case scenarioSensitivity analysisWe have identified that there are two independent uncontrollable variables in our model. The best way to quantify the uncertainty without the simulation is to conduct a sensitivity analysis.One-way sensitivity analysis allows identifying the influence of each variable on the total costs.Expectedly, we observe that zero-cost for economy class happens at 5% of no-show and for business class is 20%, as these levels are equal to full capacity utilization in each class.Any deviation from these levels results in the increased costs for the company. For the economy class the increase of no-shows by 1% point results in the loss of  £1,800, while a decrease of 1% point results in the loss of  £600. In business the corresponding figures are  £1,450 and  £300 (figure 1).In relative terms, the costs of 1% increase are 3 times and ~5 times higher than the costs of 1% decrease in no-shows for economy and business class correspondingly. The observation leads us to conclude that overbooking is a viable option for the airline. Analysis of two way sensitivity (Appendix A), helps us to identify the sweet spot of costs of no-shows (colored green).SimulationPolicy comparisonIn the simulation analysis we assumed triangular probability of no-shows based on the available data (economy: between 3%-8%, most people 5%; business: between 15%-30%, most common 20%). We have also used 5,000 iterations to calculate final results. Table 5 summarizes the results.Table Simulation output analysisAccording to our analysis the mean of the current policy equals  £10,800. This value is different from  £6,250 as the new estimated mean represents the expected value, which are the average costs weighted by their respective probabilities. The previous estimati on indicates solely the costs at one point.Quick look at the summary table helps us identify that the proposed quick fix is the least value destructing policy out of three policies. It has the lowest mean of total costs, the lowest probability of exceeding  £10,000 as well as the narrowest range of the cost.To be more assured, we have additionally conducted probability dominance analysis (figure 2), which tells that both current and quick fix policy have deterministic dominance (always better) then no overbooking policy (green line). Whereas the quick fix (blue line) has stochastic dominance over currently employed policy (red line). The outcome of current policy maybe occasionally better than our proposed solution, but in the majority of cases the quick fix policy will be better.Figure 2 Probability dominance analysisPolicy optimizationIn order to identify the optimal booking policy we have conducted simulation with 40 different booking levels for business and economy. As these t wo variables are independent, we have conducted consequential analysis. Results for business class level booking are in (figure 3). The detailed information about tested values is in Appendix B.Figure 3 Optimal booking policyWe have observed that the lowest expected value of total costs is achieved at 427 and 133 accepted reservations for economy and business respectively. The comparison of current policy against new policy can be found in table 6.Table Current vs new policy comparisonFurther model improvementsIt has been suggested that passengers upgraded from the economy class to business class, can additionally reduce costs.We have included this condition in the model and run the simulation with different booking levels for business and economy (see section on optimization). Expected booking levels are not affected by this change. No further adjustments to the booking levels are necessary due to overbooking in both classes,Nevertheless, in some instances, as we consider the whole spectrum of possibilities, we observe that there are occasions at which business class is not fully occupied. By introducing upgrade possibility we can indeed improve our overall results as seen from the following summary table 7.Table New policy with upgrade option Even though the improvement to the mean is limited to  £200 and the range adjustments also non-significant, we almost eradicating the chance of incurring costs more than  £10,000.This result ascribes to the partial offsetting of business opportunity costs (fare of  £1,450), with collected fare from economy class passengers of  £450 and the omission of compensation cost of  £150 to economy customers for overbooked flights. Thus, TransAtlantic airlines incurs only the cost of  £850 per business passenger instead of  £1,450 under the circumstance that business class passengers don’t show up and leave seats to extra passengers of economy class.

Lipstick Jihad

In Lipstick Jihad: A Memoir of Growing Up Iranian in America and American in Iran, Azadeh Moaveni has written a memoir of growing up first as an American girl born of Iranian parents in Southern California, then as an adult working as a reporter for Time magazine while living in Tehran, Iran. Azadeh Moaveni tells of her jihad (struggle) to develop from a self-centered, spoil girl into an adult with recognition that there are billions of others in the world, each of whom has opinions and beliefs that are equally as important as her own. While living among the community of expatriated Iranians and going to public schools, Azadeh Moaveni sometimes felt she was living a schizophrenic life: at home she was an Iranian daughter of upper middle class Iranians who had escaped Iran just prior to the 1979 revolution that overthrew the Shah of Iran and installed a Moslem Republic in its place. At school and at the mall she felt like an outsider because she was darker skinned and had a name no one could pronounce. She was ashamed of her parents, ashamed of being an Iranian because so many people remembered the taking of the American hostages and harbored resentment against Iranians. Since she felt out of place in California, Azadeh Moaveni had built a fantasy of what her life Iran would be like; it would be perfect. What she fails to realize is that she was really just a typical teenager; no one feels they fit in while going through adolescence; everyone is ashamed of his or her parents and other family members. Although the book isn't formally divided into two sections, it is in fact divided in this manner. The first four chapters tell of her life growing up in Palo Alto and San Jose and her first few months working as a reporter. The second half of the book tells about her realization that the beliefs and opinions of others matters; she moves from an egocentric worldview to a more realistic, balanced view of the world and her place in it. The first chapter, â€Å"The Secret Garden,† Moaveni tells of her life in the United States living within the Diaspora community of Iranian expatriates. Her parents and others of that generation had been among the upper classes in Iran before the 1789 revolution. In Iran they had lived well, they had servants, and led a life separate from the vast majority of the people of Iran. In many ways they had absorbed the superior attitude of the British who lived and worked in Iran to exploit the considerable oil resources at the expense of the less privileged members of Iranian society. In the United States they lived in their own Iranian community within the California community at large. Naturally they held a positive, nostalgic belief that Iran of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s was the real Iran and they waited for the Shah or his son to return to power so they could go home. Azadeh Moaveni had visited Iran once as a child when she and her mother spent a summer with their relatives in her grandfather's walled compound in downtown Tehran. In this compound she felt absolutely free. She climbed the trees and ate the fruit of the trees. Due to this memory from her childhood and to the almost fanatical reverence of Iran that the adults around her believed Azadeh Moaveni developed a fantasy of life in Iran. When she was unhappy that fantasy was her escape from the difficulties of the day-to-day problems of being an adolescent. Consequently, when she finished college and was looking for a place to work, she chose to return to Tehran. Azadeh Moaveni called chapter two â€Å"Homecoming† because she anticipated that she would finally be where she should be, among her people, people that could pronounce her name, people who could understand her.   She was to be disappointed, â€Å". . . we had assumed here, in this country where people could pronounce our names, our world would expand. Instead we felt constricted† (Moaveni, 2005). Everywhere she went she found barriers from the officials, from the police, and from the volunteer, Basig, a group of young toughs who enforced the rules of public dress and behavior with force, if necessary. Azadeh Moaveni had an elitist attitude indicated by her opinion of the Basig. â€Å"The Basig were carefully selected in the poorest of neighborhoods and were cultivated to violence with a skillful balance of brainwashing and small incentives.† Certainly the violence practiced by the Basig was wrong, but Azadeh Moaveni's failure to realize the Basig may not have seen their role as making barriers, but of enforcing the Islamic law established by the current administration. The fact that she speaks of them being from the â€Å"poorest of neighborhoods† indicates an aristocratic slant to her view of those less fortunate than she was. Much of her struggle at this point was a failure to look at any issue from any vantage point other than her own. She was very much the California girl. Her priorities were shallow and self-serving. â€Å"Celine became my first new Iranian girlfriend, guiding me to the best manicurist, waxing lady, and private pastry chef in the city with the shared belief that these were urgent priorities.† (67).   Throughout the remainder of the first half of the book she exhibited similar attitudes and priorities. Even her attempts to practice the precepts of Islam were lacking depth. For Ramadan I had â€Å"resolved to fast, naively expecting to spend the month in harmony with the daily rhythm of the millions of Iranians around me† (Moaveni, 2005). When she realized others she knew did not do, she was disappointed and gave up her fasting. Her fantasy view of Iran had begun to crumble. In the second half of the book, Azadeh Moaveni began to grow. More oppressive violence began to be practiced by the clerical militants in Iran in an attempt to discourage people from voting at all. It was clear to everyone that the reformist President Khatami would win the election, however the more conservative clerics wanted to make sure he did not win with a large enough majority to be able to claim that he had a mandate from the people to make changes and lift restrictions that had been established by the Ayatollah Khomeini when the Islam Republic had been established in 1979. Khatami was reelected with 78% of the vote with 66% of the people voting (Moaveni, 2005). Many of Azadeh Moaveni's friends had boycotted the election because their vote would mean nothing in a repressive society. She began to realize that the political and educational elite she lived among had little in common with the people who lived in Iran. Their non-voting meant absolutely nothing. It was irrelevant to the majority of people of Iran. For the first time Azadeh Moaveni began to look beyond herself and her class and realize the Iran she carried in her head, was not Iran at all. What she and her friends thought meant nothing. â€Å"About six months after I came to Tehran, I put my labors of self-interrogation to rest, happy to nominally consider myself Iranian from America, but mostly happy just to live, and not consider myself so much† (Moaveni, 2005). When the attack on the United States occurred on September 11, 2001, Azadeh Moaveni was devastated. She couldn't understand why no one seemed to care. The three thousand plus dead was a small number compared to the millions killed in the struggles in Bosnia, the genocide in the Sudan and Somalia. Thousands of men died in the recent Iran-Iraq war. Both sides in this war were armed by the United States. Azadeh Moaveni began to understand the anti-American sentiment throughout the Middle East. When this book began, I was disappointed. Based on the word â€Å"Jihad† in the title and the fact that it had to do with Iran, I expected something more universal than a memoir of a young woman. I felt deceived as if she had composed her title to attract more buyers who saw the word â€Å"Jihad† and were interested in learning about the Middle East and not at all interested in another teenager comes of age book. Throughout the first half of the book I saw little reason to change my opinion. I became more and more disappointed. Frankly, I did not care about Azadeh Moaveni or anything she did or thought. She seemed to be little more than a typical upper middle class teenager who thought the center of the universe coincided with her particular location at any particular moment. She was self-centered, arrogant and egotistical. By the time I had read half of the book, I was suffering from a Jihad of my own and wondered how I would be able to stand Azadeh Moaveni for the rest of the book. However, in the second half this changed. Azadeh Moaveni became a woman, a real person who understood that there were other people besides herself and her circle of friends and relatives. She recognized there were millions of people in Iran, and in California for that matter, who lived and struggled and died. Each of them was just as much a person as her educated, young, elite friends, and her relatives who had been made wealthy under the Shah and had made their wealth at the expense of workers in Iran. By the time I finished reading the book I had come to appreciate it. It was a Jihad for Azadeh Moaveni, a struggle to grow from the girl with childlike fantasies about life into a woman with sensitivity and balanced worldview that was not populated by solely her friends and relatives. It is a book well worth reading, not only for those who like coming of age stories, but for those interested in learning about the Middle East and America's role in the development of its current political, religious and ideological structure. It can help the reader begin to understand the anti-American attitudes of other countries. Interestingly, the United States has in many ways behaved in the past the way Azadeh Moaveni did in the first half of the book: like a spoiled, self-centered child. Hopefully we will see the same growth that Azadeh Moaveni experienced begin in the United States and its interactions with other countries and peoples. References Moaveni, A. (2005). Lipstick Jihad: A Memoir of Growing Up Iranian in America and American in Iran. New York: Public Affairs, a member of Persius Books Group.   

development of fusion reactor essays

development of fusion reactor essays Many of scientists have spent abundant amount of years trying to figure out a way to access infinite, clean, accessible energy. Thats why the development of the fusion reactor is a very important invention in the world of science. Some people may ask what exactly is a fusion reactor, and how does it work? The large amount of energy let go by the sun and the stars is the result of the changing of matter into energy. This occurs when the lightest atom, hydrogen, is heated to very high temperatures forming a special gas called plasma. In this plasma, hydrogen atoms combine, or "fuse", to form a heavier atom, helium. In the process of fusing, some of the hydrogen involved is converted directly into large amounts of energy. In order for fusion reactions to occur, the particles must be hot enough temperature, in sufficient number of density and well limited confinement time. These simultaneous conditions are represented by a fourth state of matter known as plasma. In a plasma, electrons are uncovered from their nuclei. A plasma, as a result, consists of charged particles, ions and electrons. There are three main mechanisms for confining these hot plasmas - magnetic, inertial and gravitational. Magnetic confinement takes w hold of strong magnetic fields, usually 100,000 times the earth's magnetic field, set in a pattern to prevent the charged particles from leaking out. Inertial confinement uses powerful lasers or high energy particle beams to press the fusion fuel together. The enormous force of gravity confines the fuel in the sun and stars. There are two main reasons for pursuing fusion research, the furthering of our understanding of the actions of plasmas that make up most of the known universe, and the creation of a new energy source. Fusion energy would be a renewable energy technology that offers a significant mix of potential advantages. Fusion fuels are abundant and readily available to all nations. Using fusion ener...